Balance Sheet

Balance Sheet

Shruti CHAND

In this article, Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022) elaborates on the concept of balance sheet

This read will help you get started with understanding balance sheet and what it indicates when studying a company.

What is a balance sheet?

Balance Sheet is one of the most important financial statement that states business’ assets, liabilities and shareholders’ equity at a specific point of time. It is a consolidated statement to explain what an entity owns and owes to the investors (both creditors and shareholders).

Balance sheet helps to understand the financial standing of the business and helps to calculate ratios which better explain the liquidity, profitability, financial structure and over all state of the business to better understand it.

Structure of the balance sheet

Screenshot 2021-10-25 at 1.24.06 AM

Use of the balance sheet in financial analysis

In financial analysis, the information from the balance sheet is used to compute ratios: liquidity ratios, profitability ratios (especially the return on investment (ROI) and the return on equity (ROE)) and ratios to measure the financial structure (the debt-to-equity ratio).

Final Word

Balance Sheet is one of the most important financial statement for fundamental analysis. Investors use Balance Sheet to get a sense of the health of the company. Various ratios such as debt-to-equity ratio, current ratio, etc can be derived out of the balance sheet. Fundamental Analyst also use the balance sheet as a comparison tool between companies in the same industry.

Relevance to the SimTrade certificate

This post deals with Balance Sheet and its importance in the books of accounts of a company that investors might want to assess.

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   ▶ Shruti CHAND Assets

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Liabilities

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Assets

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Long-term securities

About the author

Article written by Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022).

Shareholder's Equity

Shareholder’s Equity

Shruti Chand

In this article, Shruti Chand (ESSEC Business School, Master in Management, 2020-2022) elaborates on the concept of Shareholder’s equity.

This read will help you get started with understanding shareholder’s equity and its meaning on the books of accounts of companies.

Shareholders Equity:

Shareholders equity on the Balance Sheet is the amount that the owners of the company have invested into the business.

Shareholders equity = Money invested by owners + Retained earnings deferred over time.

The three categories of shareholders equity are:

  • Money invested by the shareholders:
  1. Common Shares: These shareholders are last in line when it comes to claims in case of dissolution of the company. They fall behind all the other dues of the company such as creditors, bond holders and preferred shareholders.
  2. Preferred Shares: These shareholders have a priority over the earnings of the company. What this means for the shareholders is that they are paid dividends before the common shareholders.
  3. Retained Earnings: is the percentage of net earnings that was not paid to the shareholders as dividends.

Owner’s claim:

One can further understand the shareholders equity by thinking of it as the difference between what the business owns and owes, i.e.: Total Assets – Total Liabilities. If one sums the total assets on a balance sheet and subtracts all types of liabilities, what remains is the sum of money that the business owes to its shareholders.

Understanding Shareholders equity:

If the value of Shareholders equity is positive, it means that business is in a healthy state and has enough assets to cover its liabilities. On the other hand, if the Shareholders equity is negative, then the business owes more in liabilities than the assets it holds to back the claims.

Relevance to the SimTrade certificate

Understanding shareholder’s equity structure of a company is an important indicator of the health of a company and can help investors make better investment decisions.

  • By taking the market orders course , you will know more about how investors can use various strategies to invest in order to trade in the market.

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About practice

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About the author

Article written by Shruti Chand (ESSEC Business School, Master in Management, 2020-2022).

Technical Analysis

Technical Analysis

Shruti Chand

In this article, Shruti Chand (ESSEC Business School, Master in Management, 2020-2022) elaborates on the concept of technical analysis.

This read will help you get started with understanding technical analysis and how it is practiced in today’s world.

What is technical analysis?

Technical analysis is a tool used to predict future price movements and trends of security. This type of analysis is based on historical market data (both transaction prices and volumes) using various methods to help traders and investors in their decisions to buy and sell securities.

Investors perform technical analysis because sometimes, fundamental analysis may not always reflect the market price. In other words, the market may not be efficient from an informational point of view. Since technical analysis uses statistical and behavioral economics, it guides traders to what is most likely to happen. Hence, in real-life scenarios, investors usually use both technical and fundamental analysis to make decisions.

While fundamental analysis involves evaluating the intrinsic value of a company based on external events, market study, financial statement analysis, industry trends to name a few. Technical Analysis, on the other hand, relies on market movement more than the intrinsic value of the investment.

How is Technical Analysis different from Fundamental Analysis?

Unlike fundamental analyst, the overvaluation and undervaluation of a stock does not influence the behaviour of a technical analyst. Since Technical Analysis is concerned with price action, all decisions are based on the market movements rather than considering industry trends and company performance as technical analysts are really looking to
make money based on the stock market performance of a stock based on price trends.

Since technical analysis is statistical in nature, it is based on various
assumptions. It is very important to keep these assumptions in mind to
be able to perform technical analysis for investing:

  1. Market discounts itself: All the prices in the markets are a reflection of known and
    unknown information present with the investors in the stock
    market. The market takes into account all these factors and hence, price
    is always a reflection of this information.
  2. History repeats itself: Technical Analysis is a historic representation
    of price movements. It assumes that the history of the previous record
    of prices will be repeated in the future. It is based on the actions
    that investors take in an upward trending market, people tend to go
    long and vice versa.
  3. Trend influences price: Technical analysis studies and identifies
    trends in the market on the basis of which decisions are made.
    Since it is assumed that these trends will be reflected in the price,
    only then does technical analysis and its actions make sense.

How can you start Technical Analysis?

A lot of you all might wonder how can you start and eventually make money while practicing technical analysis. These simple steps can help any beginner:

There are various technical indicators that help technical analysts to identify market trends:

Charts:

While it is important to keep in mind that no technical analysis is perfect, there are some tried and tested common charts that Investors use various charts to help them predict future market movements, some of the most common ones are:

1.  Line Chart
2. Bar Chart
3. Candlestick Chart
4. Renko Chart etc
And many more…

Moving Averages:

Moving average is a technical analysis tool that helps investors smoothen the price movements data by a frequently updated average price. Since minor and major movements in stocks over a really brief period of time can influence technical analysis results, a moving average is calculated to better predict actions.

MA are customizable and the time frame is based on the discretion of the analyst. The most common time frames that investors use are 15, 20, 30, 50, 100, 200 days.

Relevance to the SimTrade certificate

With basic technical analysis, you can start trading in the markets through Online Brokers or through the Simtrade Platform to enhance your learnings.

About theory

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About the author

Article written by Shruti Chand (ESSEC Business School, Master in Management, 2020-2022).

Long-Term Loans

Long-Term Loans

Shruti Chand

In this article, Shruti Chand (ESSEC Business School, Master in Management, 2020-2022) elaborates on long-term loans.

This read will help you get started with understanding long-term loans and how it is used in today’s world.

Introduction

A term loan or long-term loan refers to a loan from a bank for a specific amount of
funds with a fixed interest rate or a floating interest rate payable over a specified
schedule. A company uses term loans to fund the purchase of fixed assets, for
instance, manufacturing equipment, property, etc.

The term loans are issued by banks for short-term as well as long-term periods of
time. Depending on the needs of the business, the banks usually have different
types of term loan offerings. These loans differ from each other in their repayment
schedule as well as the type of interest rates.

Main aspects behind facilitating a term loan

1. Collateral:
Nature of term loans are usually very risky for the lender, hence the banks
usually require collateral and a rigorous approval process to grant term loans
to businesses.

2. Repayment schedule:
The repayment schedule is fixed by the bank at the beginning of the term loan
grant process. This is based on various factors that the bank considers about
the risk profile behind the loan. Generally, term loans do not carry any
penalties if they are paid off ahead of schedule. If the company does not pay
the obligations in time based on a pre-decided repayment schedule, the
banks charge a penalty which can be hefty. These repayment schedules can
be monthly, quarterly, or yearly.

3. Interest rates: The term loan bears an interest rate charged by the bank which is pre-decided. This interest rate can be either fixed throughout the tenure of the
term loan period or be a floating rate that fluctuates throughout the period of
the term loan. Let’s understand the types of interest rates to get better
understanding:

● Fixed interest rate:
This is straightforward as it is fixed based on the nature of the loan and
the time period. If the loan is relatively risky, the interest rate fixed will be
higher than that for a loan with low levels of risk.

● Variable interest rates:
The interest rates that differ along the period of the term loan are
referred to as variable interest rate. They are usually attached to the
value of a benchmark rate such as LIBOR (London Interbank Offered
Rate).

This interest can be represented in the following way: LIBOR + 0.5%
Hence, as the value of LIBOR changes, the interest rate also increases
or decreases along with it.

 

Various types of term loans:

1. Short-term loans: These loans are usually taken by companies for a period of
less than 1 year.

2. Intermediate-term loans: These loans are usually for a period of more than 1
year but less than 3 years. The company usually pays for these loans monthly
through the cash flow it generates through its operations.

3. Long-term loans: Any term loan for a period of more than 3 years can be
defined as a long-term loan. These loans require collateral to be granted by
the bank. The repayment schedule can be monthly, quarterly based on the
agreed terms in the beginning.

Long-term loans are present on the non-current liabilities of the balance of every
firm. Long-term loans cannot be avoided by a company especially when it is starting
out as it is a primary source of funding

You can read more about other forms of liabilities on a firm’s balance sheet.

Relevance to the SimTrade certificate

This post deals with Long-Term loans, which are taken up by companies and indicate their financial health.

About theory

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About the author

Article written by Shruti Chand (ESSEC Business School, Master in Management, 2020-2022).

Long-Term Liabilities

Long-Term Liabilities

Shruti Chand

In this article, Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022) elaborates on long-term liabilities.

This read will help you get started with understanding long-term liabilities and how it is used in making investment decisions.

Introduction

Long-term liabilities are financial liabilities of the firm that are due in a period more than one year. These long-term obligations are also referred to as non-current liabilities.

You can find the long-term liabilities in the balance sheet including various items such as all long-term loans, bonds, and deferred tax liabilities.

While the current liabilities of a business represent the funds used by a company to cover its liquid assets, the non-current part of the liabilities are used to cover primary business operations and purchase of heavy long-term assets.

The current and non-current liabilities are separated from each other to help readers understand the financial prosperity of the businesses in different time scenarios.

The most common examples of long-term liabilities are as follows:

● Bonds payable
● Long term loans
● Pension liabilities
● Deferred income taxes
● Deferred revenues

Final Words

Understanding the level of long-term liabilities of the business helps the reader to assess the risk behind meeting the financial obligations of a business. To be able to measure this risk level, it is very important for the investor to understand the concept of leverage. It helps the reader understand how much capital comes from debt. This
helps one understand the position of a company towards its ability to meet its financial obligations. High levels of leverage can be risky for the business. You can measure this using various financial ratios. Common leverage ratios include debt-equity ratio and equity multiplier.

Relevance to the SimTrade certificate

Understanding long term liabilities and its significance in the books of accounts of a company will help you better understand the financial health of companies you would like to invest in.

About theory

  • By taking the market orders course, you will know more about how investors can use various strategies to invest in order to trade in the market.

Take SimTrade courses

About practice

  • By launching the series of Market maker simulations, you can extend your learning about financial markets and trading approaches.

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Related posts on the SimTrade blog

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Balance sheet

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Liabilities

About the author

Article written in October 2021 by Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022).

Accounts Payable

Accounts Payable

Shruti Chand

In this article, Shruti Chand (ESSEC Business School, Master in Management, 2020-2022) elaborates on the concept of accounts payable.

This read will help you get started with understanding accounts payable and its significance.

What are accounts payable?

Accounts Payable appears in the balance sheet of a company when the company purchases goods or services on credit that needs to be paid after a certain period.

Accounts payable arises when the payment for a purchase of goods or services has not been made upfront but will happen in the future at a given date determined at the time of the purchase by the client (sale by the firm). In this case, goods or services are purchased on credit. They are to to be paid back in the short term.

Example

The services that we consume monthly such as electricity or telephone usually must be paid at the end of the month even though the consumption of the month is done before the said payment. This in turn becomes accounts payable. And our failure to meet the payment at the end of the month could lead to default and hence an extra charge.

For businesses the account payable could be when for example they buy a product, but the payment is not done instantly. For instance, Company X buys an AC from company Y but agrees to make the payment after a month. This transaction for Company X will be recorded as accounts payable whereas for Company Y it will be recorded as accounts receivable.

Accounting Treatment

‘Accounts payable’ falls under Liability in the balance sheet under ‘Current Liability’. It is in current liability since it is a form of short-term debt. Failure to meet this payment by the company will lead to a default. For double entry of accounting, the debit of the same is recorded in the expense account as a purchase. For goods like raw materials, there is a variation in inventory in the revenues and an increase in the Asset side under ‘Inventory’.

The increase or decrease in the Accounts Payable of the prior period is recorded in the Cash Flow statement of the entity.

 

Final Words

Accounts payable are crucial to every economy and it differs based on various factors and is taken in control by policy makers whenever needed. As a student curious about Finance, learning about Repo Rate will go a long way in the future to understand better how liquidity and prices in the economy is maintained.

Relevance to the SimTrade certificate

This post deals with Accounts Payable and how it’s significance in the books of accounts of the companies you would like to invest in as an investor,

About theory

  • By taking the SimTrade course , you will learn more about the markets.

Take SimTrade courses

About practice

  • By launching the series of Market maker simulations, you can extend your learning about financial markets and trading approaches.

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About the author

Article written by Shruti Chand (ESSEC Business School, Master in Management, 2020-2022).

Inventory

Inventory

Shruti Chand

In this article, Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022) elaborates on the concept of accounts receivable.

This read will help you get started with understanding inventory and its significance.

Definition

All the raw material that a business uses to produce goods and the ready for sale products that a business possesses is referred to as Inventory. It is a form of asset for a business.

All inventory is categorised and recorded as current asset on the balance sheet. The inventory mainly comprises of three types of goods:

1. Raw materials: The assets that a business uses in the production process to produce the final product.

2. Work-in progress: The unfinished product held by a business not ready to be sold yet.

3. Finished goods: Ready to sell products possessed by a business not sold yet. These products are usually held by a business in warehouses.

The value of inventory is important to be evaluated by a business as it is an asset stored by the business which incurs costs of storage. The value of the inventory can be evaluated in various ways though, depending on the accounting method followed by the business.

The three ways in which inventory can be valued are as follows

1. FIFO: First in first out method which calculates the cost of goods sold on the basis of the cost of earliest purchased materials.

2. LIFO: Last in first out method states that the cost of the goods sold are calculated based on the value of the raw materials purchased last.

3. Weighted average method: States that the value of inventory is calculated based on the average cost of the total raw material purchased by the business.

Final Words

Understanding inventory and calculating it well helps the business to plan the purchase of raw materials and production decisions better. Business can determine the level of purchases to be made and exercise stock control for better business performance.

Relevance to the SimTrade certificate

This post deals with inventory part of the books of accounts, which is an important indicator for investors to study the financial health of a company.

About theory

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About practice

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Related posts on the SimTrade blog

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Balance sheet

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Accounts Receivable

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Current Assets

About the author

Article written in October 2021 by Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022).

Accounts Receivable

Accounts Receivable

Shruti Chand

In this article, Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022) elaborates on the concept of accounts receivable.

This read will help you get started with understanding accounts receivable and its significance.

Introduction

Accounts Receivable appears in the balance sheet of a company when an entity (an individual or a company) purchases goods or services on credit from the company and the payment will be received later.

It is the amount of money owed by the customer for any purchase that is made on credit. Quite often, business sells products/services to its customers but the payment is made in the future and issues an invoice for this same in the meantime. This invoice signifies that the product has been sent but the payment is to be done within a specified future date. These are a form of short-term debt since they are to be paid back in a short span. The time for the payment is usually from about 30 days to a few months.

Example

Company A that sells broadband service usually provides the service for the month, but the payment is typically received at the end of the month. This means that even though the service has been provided, the payment is pending hence making it an accounts receivable.

Mostly, businesses provide credit purchases to customers with whom they have frequent transactions. This enables them to avoid the hassle of payments every time a transaction occurs. It also helps build a good relationship with its clients by providing them an ease of payment.

Accounting Treatment

As discussed, since Accounts Receivables is like a short-term credit line to clients hence it is treated as a short-term asset in the balance sheet. It falls under ‘Current Assets’ since the payment is received in the short term. For double entry, the credit side of the same is recorded in the income account as a sale. Once, the payment is made the cash in the balance sheet will increase and the accounts receivable will decrease. For goods like raw materials, there is a variation in inventory in the revenues and a decrease in the Asset side under ‘Inventory’.

The increase or decrease in accounts receivable from the prior period is also recorded in the Cash Flow Statement.

Final Words

Accounts receivable are crucial to every economy and it differs based on various factors and is taken in control by policy makers whenever needed. As a student curious about Finance, learning about accounts receivable will go a long way in the future to understand better how liquidity and prices in the economy is maintained.

Relevance to the SimTrade certificate

This post deals with Accounts Receivable and its significance on the book of accounts of a company.

About theory

  • By taking the SimTrade course , you will learn more about the markets. It’s important to remember that accounts receivables are an important to assess it to understand the financial health of a company you would like to invest in.

Take SimTrade courses

About practice

  • By launching the series of Market maker simulations, you can extend your learning about financial markets and trading approaches.

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Related posts on the SimTrade blog

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Balance sheet

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Accounts Payable

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Current Assets

About the author

Article written in October 2021 by Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022).

Rise of SPAC investments as a medium of raising capital

Rise of SPAC investments as a medium of raising capital

Daksh GARG

In this article, Daksh GARG (ESSEC Business School, Master in Strategy & Management of International Business (SMIB), 2020-2021) talks about the rise of SPAC investments as a medium of raising capital. Imagine someone famous asking you to invest in a company. Chances are, you will want to know more. As it turns out, there is no company, at least not yet. Will you invest in it with your money?

What are SPACs?

‘SPAC’ stands for Special Purpose Acquisition Companies. SPACs are a type of blank-check company that pools funds to finance mergers and acquisitions (M&A) transactions.

Once shunned by investors, SPACs have become an increasingly popular method in recent years to list companies on a stock exchange.

SPACs are shell companies with no actual commercial operations but are created solely for raising capital through an initial public offering – or IPO – to acquire later a private company. This is done by selling common stocks – with shares commonly sold at $10 a piece – and a warrant, which gives investors the preference to buy more stocks later at a fixed price.

Once the funds are raised, they will be kept in a trust until one of two things happen:

    The management team of the SPAC — also known as sponsors — identifies a company of interest, which will then be taken public through an acquisition, using the capital raised in the SPAC IPO.

    If the SPAC fails to merge or acquire a company within a deadline typically two years — the SPAC will be liquidated, and investors will get their money back.

SPACs have existed in one form or another as early as the 1990s, typically as a last resort for smaller companies to go public. The number of SPAC IPOs has waxed and waned over the years in tandem with the economic cycles. SPACs have been making a resurgence of late.

The timeline for SPAC

Figure 1 gives the typical timeline for a SPAC investment. Following the IPO, the proceeds for a SPAC are placed in a fund. In the meantime, the SPAC has to merge with a target company. If it is not able to do that in the time frame, the SPAC has to liquidate and the IPO proceeds are returned to the shareholders.

Figure 1. Typical SPAC timeline.

Typical SPAC timeline

Source: PWC accounting advisory

Difference between a traditional IPO and a SPAC

There are several ways a private company can go public (being quoted on the stock market). The most common route is through a traditional IPO, where the company is subject to regulatory and investor scrutiny of its audited financial statements.

An investment bank is usually hired by the company to underwrite the IPO, which usually takes 4-6 months to complete. This involves roadshows and pitch meetings between company executives and potential investors to drum up interest and demand in its shares. And not all IPOs succeed. A very famous example is that of a co-working-space company called WeWork withdrew its high-profile IPO in 2019 amid weak demand for its shares after massive losses and leadership controversies were revealed. Other companies such as Spotify and Slack went public through direct listings, saving on fees paid to middlemen such as investment banks, although there are more risks involved. And while private companies listed through SPACs are similar to reverse takeovers, such as the case for insolvent fintech company Wirecard, they are different in that SPACs start off on a clean slate and have lower risks. Because SPACs are nothing more but shell companies, their track records depend on the reputation of their management teams. By skipping the roadshow process, SPAC IPOs also typically are listed in a much shorter time. This leads to some investors to become wary of buying shares in companies listed through SPACs due to the lack of scrutiny compared to traditional IPOs.

SPAC sponsors also typically receive 20% of founder shares in the company at a heavily discounted price, also known as the “promote.” This essentially dilutes the ownership of public shareholders.

Performance of traditional IPOs compared to SPAC IPOs

According to Bloomberg, a study of 56 SPACs that completed acquisitions or mergers since the start of 2018 found that they tend to underperform the S&P 500 during a three, six and 12-month period after the transaction. A separate study of blank-check companies in the U.S. organized between 2015 and 2019 found that the majority are trading below the standard price of $10 per share. Between 2017 and the middle of 2019, there were slightly over 100 SPACs in the U.S., with an average return of a mere 2%.

Even before the pandemic, SPACs were already on the rise, buoyed by the equity boom and hot IPO market in 2019. While the pandemic has slowed the pipeline of traditional IPOs, SPACs have increased.

In fact, funds raised through SPACs outpaced traditional IPOs in August 2020 — a rarity on Wall Street. In the first ten months of 2020, there were 165 SPAC IPOs globally, of which 96% of them were listed in the U.S. While largely an American phenomenon, SPACs have caught the attention of investors in other jurisdictions.
In 2018, Antony Leung, the former finance secretary of Hong Kong, raised $1.5 billion on the New York Stock Exchange through his SPAC, which bought a mainland hospital chain a year later.

Other players include Masayoshi Son’s SoftBank, and the investment arm of Chinese state-owned conglomerate CITIC Group. Despite having sponsors from Asia looking to acquire international companies, these SPACs are ultimately listed in the U.S.

One main reason is the different rules for SPACs across jurisdictions. In the U.S., investors can vote to approve the acquisition the SPAC proposes or redeem their funds if they do not support the proposed deal.

This, however, isn’t a requirement in some European jurisdictions, including the U.K. There is also a lock-in period for British investors once an acquisition is announced until the approval of the prospectus, which ties them into deals that they may not support in that indefinite period.

Future of SPACs

As SPAC activity reaches fever pitch in the U.S., regulators are putting these blank-check companies under the microscope. Competition to the IPO process is probably a good thing, but for good competition and good decision-making, you need good information. And one of the areas in the SPAC space that I’m particularly focused on is incentives and compensation to the SPAC sponsors. As more ordinary investors jump on the SPAC bandwagon, experts are concerned that this will overheat markets and affect any fragile economic recovery. While SPACs provide a straightforward route to invest through a trusted intermediary, its performance so far means that it is a dicey bet for ordinary investors.

Why should I be interested in this post?

If you are interested in how big companies are going public, SPAC is one of the most interesting phenomena which is going to transform the financial industry. So, if you are planning to work for top underwriting firms or big banks or on Wall Street, you should have in-depth knowledge on how SPACs work and what are some of their advantages and disadvantages.

Useful resources

PWC How special purpose acquisition companies (SPACs) work Accessed November 2, 2021.

PWC Analysis: De-SPACing Successes Refuel Hot SPAC IPO Market Accessed November 2, 2021.

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

   ▶ Suyue MA Expeditionary experience in a Chinese investment banking boutique

   ▶ Raphaël ROERO DE CORTANZE In the shoes of a Corporate M&A Analyst

About the author

The article was written in November 2021 by Daksh GARG (ESSEC Business School, Master in Strategy & Management of International Business (SMIB), 2020-2021).

Pension Funds

Pension Funds

Shruti Chand

In this article, Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022) elaborates on the concept of Pension Funds

This read will help you get started with understanding pension funds and its significance.

What are pension funds

Term pension liability refers to the amount that a company or government owes to the pension fund obligations due to retirees. A pension liability will only occur in defined benefit schemes.

The traditional pensions are pre-defined benefit schemes. These funds consist of contributions from employees and the company over a period of time. The employees agree to contribute a certain amount into the fund in return of a guaranteed source of fund flow upon retirement.

Not all pension funds have liabilities attached to them. Most common pension fund in this regard is 401k where the company is under no obligation to contribute towards the fund. It is pre-defined by the company and the employee to contribute towards the fund which may or may not guarantee obligation upon retirement.

So, what is pension fund liability?

Pension fund liability is the difference between the total amount due to retirees and the actual amount of money the company has in order to meet these fund obligations.

If the company or the government has more money than the future payment obligations, it is said to have a pension surplus, and if this is not the case, it is referred to as pension deficit which results in a pension fund liability.

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This post deals with Pension fund liability.

About theory

  • By taking the SimTrade course , you will learn more about the markets. It’s important to remember that pension funds has not much to do with investing directly. But, it is important to understand it as it’s an important activity for the companies investors invest in.

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About practice

  • By launching the series of Market maker simulations, you can extend your learning about financial markets and trading approaches.

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   ▶ Shruti CHAND Balance sheet

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Liabilities

About the author

Article written in October 2021 by Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022).

Long-Term Assets

Long-Term Assets

Shruti Chand

In this article, Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022) elaborates on long-term assets.

This read will help you get started with understanding long-term assets on the balance sheet of a business.

Introduction

Long-term assets on a balance sheet represent all the assets of a business that are not expected to turn into cash within one year. They are represented as the non- the current part of the balance sheet. These are a set of assets that the company keeps for the long-term and is not likely to be sold in the coming years, in some cases, may
never be sold.

Long-term assets can be expensive and require huge capital which might result in draining cash reserves or increasing debt for the firm.

The following category of long-term assets can be found in the balance sheet:

1. Investments:

These are all the long-term investments by a company in securities, real estate, and other asset classes. Even the bonds and other assets restricted for long-term value are treated as investments by the company.

2. Property, plant, and equipment:

Property that the company owns associated with the manufacturing process or other business operations. An important aspect about this asset class is the depreciation associated with the value of the asset over time.

Typically, you can find the following items disclosed as property, plant and equipment on the balance sheet:

● Land
● Land improvements
● Buildings
● Furniture
● Machinery
(Less: Depreciation)

3. Intangible assets

Intangible assets are the assets without a physical existence. These items represent the intellectual property of a business acquired through their operations, marketing and other efforts to create value. The most notable
intangible asset on a balance sheet is Goodwill.

Other intangible assets found in the financial statements are:

● Copyrights
● Trademarks
● Patents

4. Other assets: All the assets of non-current nature that can not be liquidated
easily.

Final Words

Since a company holds the long-term assets for a long period of time, the changes in the long-term assets can be a sign of liquidation in some cases. When investors study the balance sheet of a company, they can see if the company often sells its long-term assets then it can be a sign of financial difficulty.

Relevance to the SimTrade certificate

This post deals with Long-Term assets which are used by various  investors to study the financial health of a business.

Additional courses:

  • By taking the market orders course, you will know more about how investors can use various strategies to invest in order to trade in the market.

Take SimTrade courses

About practice

  • By launching the series of Market maker simulations, you can extend your learning about financial markets and trading approaches.

Take SimTrade courses

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Balance sheet

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Current Assets

About the author

Article written in October 2021 by Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022).

Current Assets

Current Assets

Shruti Chand

In this article, Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022) elaborates on current assets.

This read will help you get started with understanding current assets and how it is used in today’s world.

Introduction

Current asset refers to all the assets of a business that can be converted into cash with ease, usually within 12 months or less. These assets are also referred to as
liquid assets based on their nature and include items such as cash and cash equivalents, short-term investments, etc.

Current assets are important as the company needs liquid assets to pay for ongoing operational expenses.

Current Assets = Cash + Cash Equivalents + Inventory + Accounts receivable +
Marketable securities + Prepaid expenses + Other liquid assets.

All the current asset’s values are added up and recorded under the current assets the section on the balance sheet. Let us understand the following items represent the part of the current assets:

Cash, and cash equivalents

Are all the cash and its equivalents such as marketable securities, short term treasury bills/bonds.

Accounts receivable

It is the money due to a company for goods/services already delivered but not yet paid for. It is treated as current assets because they are expected to be received within a year. In case the money is never received/collected by the company, such entries are noted down as bad debts and are still recorded in the current assets section of the balance sheet.

Stock Inventory

This represents all the finished products or the lying raw materials with a firm. The company holds them until they are sold and is expected to be sold in the near future. There can be instances though, when inventory is not sold and the company’s inventory can be backlogged.

Prepaid Expenses

These represent the advance payments made by a firm for goods/services that it will receive in the future. Since the payment is already made, it allows the firm to free up capital for other uses, which is why they are recorded as current assets. These expenses usually include payments to insurance companies or service providers.

Marketable securities

These are liquid financial instruments that can be easily converted into cash. These short-term securities can be bought or sold on public stock exchanges. It includes common stock, treasury bills, and money market instruments.

Final Words

It isn’t necessarily a good thing to have a lot of cash on the balance sheet. If the company has debt and is sitting on a large amount of cash, it can portray an the unhealthy state of business or bad financial management.

Current assets allow the management of the company to make necessary arrangements to continue business operations. As an investor, one needs to keep an eye on the current assets to assess the risk in the business operations of the firm. You can use a variety of financial ratios related to liquidity to do the same, for example, current ratio, quick ratio, and cash ratio.

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Balance Sheet

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Accounts Receivable

   ▶ Shruti CHAND Current Assets

Relevance to the SimTrade certificate

This post deals with Current Assets which are used by various investors to study the financial health of a business:

About theory

  • By taking the market orders course, you will know more about how investors can use various strategies to invest in order to trade in the market.

Take SimTrade courses

About practice

  • By launching the series of Market maker simulations, you can extend your learning about financial markets and trading approaches.

Take SimTrade courses

About the author

Article written by Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022).

Robinhood

Robinhood

Shruti Chand

In this article, Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022) elaborates on Robinhood Markets.

This read will help you get started with understanding Robinhood and how it is used in today’s world.

Introduction

‘Investing for everyone’ – these are the first words you’d read if you were to visit Robinhood’s website. And that’s exactly what it stands for. Robinhood Markets, Inc is an American financial services company that offers commission-free trading through its website and mobile app. Its name is justified by their mission i.e. to ‘provide everyone with access to the financial markets, not just the wealthy.’

Since it was founded in 2013, this Silicon Valley-based firm has tried to disrupt the trading industry. It facilitated buying of fractions of a share, no minimum balance requirement for opening an account, and the best of all – free trades. Free trades weren’t a norm back in the day as it is today. With the onset of the pandemic, and the rise of new-age traders, zero-commission brokerage firms became immensely popular, and Robinhood stole the spotlight.

Homepage of Robinhood’s website
Capture

‘With great power comes great responsibility’

Its immense popularity made it face strong backlash too. Many believed that this app is giving great power in the hands of young inexperienced traders along with huge responsibility regarding their trading activity (as they are not assisted by a professional). It’s like giving the keys to a sports car to a 12-year-old boy or girl. In a statement to the Wall Street Journal, a Robinhood spokesperson wrote how they fully realize that their company has become synonymous with retail investing in America, leading to millions of young investors making their first investment through their app and that they do not take this responsibility lightly.

Suicide of a Robinhood trader

In June 2020, a 20-year-old trader on Robinhood died by suicide as he misinterpreted his Robinhood account statement, which temporarily showed a negative balance of $730,000. His suicide note also stated that he had no clue as to what he was doing and that he had no intention of taking so much risk. The company expressed its devastation while expanding its educational resources on options trading and increasing customer support in reaction to this incident.

Roll in 2021 short squeeze

In January 2021, Robinhood restricted the trading access to certain stocks such as GameStop, AMC Entertainment, Nokia, and others during the market frenzy surrounding the r/wallstreetbets subreddit (discussion forum on the Reddit platform) and its members’ attempted short squeeze on the stocks mentioned earlier. This move attracted condemnation from users on Reddit and Twitter, and it was also termed as ‘market manipulation’ to protect hedge funds. One of Robinhood’s primary market makers has some ownership in the hedge fund Melvin Capital which was one of the largest short sellers of GameStop and other stocks. This led many to suspect a conflict of interest, inducing class action lawsuits and the attention of few members of the US Congress.

How does Robinhood make money?

As most fees for equity and options trading evaporate, brokers do have to make money somehow. Robinhood generates income from a broad range of sources including Gold membership fees, stock loans, and rebates from market-makers and trading venues.

The company generates significant revenue from payments for order flow (PFOF). It is a common although controversial practice whereby brokers receive payment from market-makers in form of compensation and other benefits for directing their customers’ orders to those trading venues. While the payments might be negligible for small trades, a company that directs billions of dollars in trades can earn substantial amounts. A study suggested that in 2018, PFOF accounted for more than 40% of Robinhood’s overall revenue.

Other sources of revenue include a $5 monthly fee for optional membership to Robinhood Gold, which provides client access to margin loans and investing tools; interest on uninvested cash; lending stocks for short selling; and fees on purchases made using the company’s debit card.

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

   ▶ Shruti CHAND WallStreetBets

   ▶ Raphaël ROERO DE CORTANZE Gamestop: how a group of nostalgic nerds overturned a short-selling strategy

   ▶ Akshit GUPTA Short Selling

   ▶ Alexandre VERLET The GameStop saga

Relevance to the SimTrade certificate

This post deals with Robinhood Markets which is used by various traders and investors in different instruments. This can be learned in the SimTrade Certificate:

About theory

  • By taking the market orders course, you will know more about how investors can use various strategies to invest in order to trade in the market.

Take SimTrade courses

About practice

  • By launching the series of Market maker simulations, you can extend your learning about financial markets and trading approaches.

Take SimTrade courses

About the author

Article written by Shruti CHAND (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2020-2022).

My experience of Account Manager in the office real estate market in Paris

My experience of Account Manager in the office real estate market in Paris

Photo Clément KEFALAS

In this article, Clément KEFALAS (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor of Business Administration, 2021) shares his working experience as an Account Manager at Ubiq.

Ubiq: A company disrupting the market

Ubiq was founded in 2012. At that time, it was known as “Bureaux A Partager” (a French expression meaning “office to share”). This digital startup comes from the brilliant mind of Clément Alteresco when he faced a problem of unoccupied seats in its offices at Fabernovel (a strategic consulting firm). He thought that it was a real waste of space and even if he did not think of making profits from it, he could at least try to create value!

Ubiq logo

Source: Ubiq

This is why, Clément began by conceiving a shared Excel File with a planning and spread it amongst his network. The idea was to enable people to come to work for free in Fabernovel’s office and who knows, maybe creating synergies through exchanges and shared moments. It was then non-lucrative and totally selfless. However, it generated lot of interest and Clément wanted more than a standard employee’s life. Therefore he decided to launch his own digital platform: “Bureaux A Partager”.

The concept was easy: a website on which people would try to find their coworkers or on which people would be looking for their new offices. It was basically the “Airbnb” of the Flex office. You could forget your 3/6/9 bail, now was the time for the day-to-day contract that you could end in less than a month!

Ubiq motto

Source: Ubiq

It worked out well and in 2017, a team of about 15 people were working on the project. Clément then decided to diversify and launched Morning, the main concurrent of Wework in Paris. If he was not working on Bureaux A Partager anymore, the project kept going and became more and more mature.

Needless to say that the Covid crisis hit hard the office real estate market. The home office is definitely a restraint to the rent of offices, it also became a huge opportunity for Ubiq and a big step forward for the Flex office.

Indeed, since March 2020, we have been talking about the new methods of working and about the new role of the office in the world of tomorrow.

It is not a reflex anymore to go to the office on a working day. There must be more than just creating an environment dedicated to work. Now, the workplace is more about generating synergies, bonds and company culture than about providing an efficient and professional atmosphere.

What a great opportunity for a marketplace that offers every kind of offices with every kind of contracts than such a disorganized market which is reinventing itself.

Thus, Bureaux A Partager could not miss such an opportunity! This is why, with the help of its main shareholder, Nexity, Bureaux A Partager changed its name in “Ubiq” in June 2021.
It also changed its value proposition and recruited new talents to carry such an ambitious project.

In July and September 2021, Ubiq peaked with its 2 biggest records of revenues !

My recruitment as an account manager

Thanks to ESSEC, I had the opportunity to join Ubiq (at that time Bureaux A Partager) in January 2020 for a two-year apprenticeship in the sales team. Indeed, in the Global BBA program, the students are allowed to sign a 24 months apprenticeship contract instead of doing a 6 months internship. It results in them making one more semester in a professional environment and thus, ending with a Master 1 Degree in 4,5 years of studies.

This specific path gives the student the opportunity to involve himself in a long-term professional mission. He will get considered by its company as a normal employee and will be responsible for key missions. This is a really professionalizing program that I would definitely recommend. It also has the advantage of being a real asset on the CV when companies are asking for a professional experience longer than a single internship.

The job I was recruited for was: Account Manager. It is a function that is key in every sales team. The Account Manager will be responsible for the existing clients while the Business Developer will seek for new clients.

The main objective is to build a long term, professional, trust-based relationship with its B2B
clients.

Most of the requirements for the job are soft skills. The Account Manager works in Customer service which means that the mission consists mainly in communicating with clients.

Expected skills from the Account Manager would be:

  • curious
  • open-minded
  • motivated
  • excellent interpersonal skills
  • autonomy
  • rigor

In terms of hard skills, the Account Manager must master Excel, understand sales dashboards, write, and talk clearly and professionally.

My experience as an Account Manager

At first, I had to get to learn the job and to understand the market. This is why I was assigned in the prospect team, seeking for new clients willing to find offices. In other words, I was trying to stimulate the traffic on the platform through looking for the demand side of the market. It was not why I had been recruited for and this mission surprised me, but I then understood that it was part of the training. How could I work on the offer side of the market and help our partners to market their real estate assets if I did not understand the need of their own customers? I spent few months in the “Demand” team and if it could be at some point repetitive and tough, it was definitely formative, and helped me a lot in the continuation of my mission.

At some point, I finally reached my final position: account manager towards the Offer. It was mainly business-to-business (B2B) since the actors that wanted to rent their places, were most of the time companies and not private individuals.

The idea of creating a long-term relationship with the clients was really satisfying. Every customer had its own problematic and its own needs and still the final objective remained the same. The path to reach it though, was always different from one company to another.

Most of my interactions were by phone and email but I still had few opportunities to meet my clients. It was always interesting to have a quick talk with them in person. These meetings were most of the time the beginning of a stronger partnership based on mutual trust. Inspiring, I wish I had the opportunity to meet all of my clients this way.

I learned a lot throughout this professional experience.

First, I learned a lot about myself. It is really tough to know if you like customer service until you do it. The first sales call is always frightening and stressful but in the end, it is only a conversation with a stranger. It might not be a good experience but it can’t hurt.

The most satisfying aspect of the job is to see yourself getting better from a sales call to another. After few weeks, you do not ask yourself twice before picking up the phone. It is part of your job and you’re used to it. Unexpected problems might always happen but most of the interactions are smooth. At the end of this 24months apprenticeship, every sales call was a real delight. I knew my speech perfectly, could answer any question and managed to lead the conversation where I needed it to go. Handling the pressure was the trickiest and the funniest part.
Once an Account Manager masters his job, he faces constant self-esteem boosts. Indeed, his daily mission consists in leading discussions in a known environment about a mastered topic and with clients that require his help.

This mission enlightened me on the fact that being good at his job is not about intrinsic skills but more about perseverance. My learning was permanent, and I kept being better and better until my last day.

The different archetypes of clients

Through these two years of customer service, I had the opportunity to talk with many different actors of the office real estate market. My clients were from different ages, gender, origins, etc. And yet, we could classify each of them in four different major types.

The Satisfied

The most pleasant customer and the most common one. The satisfied client enjoys the service proposed by the account manager and has nothing to complain about. He doesn’t always get straight to the point because the Satisfied enjoys exchanging with the account manager. He is a loyal client that will not hesitate to solicit the account manager every time he requires help.

The Negotiator

Nor satisfied or unsatisfied, the negotiator will try to grab any opportunity to find himself a better deal than proposed at first. If it is not through monetary gain, this customer will seek for an exclusive treatment or relationship. At some point, we could be wondering if the final objective is to get a real benefit or just to feel special. If the account manager can most of the time propose a solution to his request, the negotiator would not necessarily end the relationship in a situation of an unmet need.

The Busy

Certainly the most boring customer, this archetype just doesn’t have time to give to the account manager. Every interaction comes with the feeling of bothering the client and thus, the exchanges are really short. Only the required information is given. Once the contract between both parts is signed, the client expects everything to work fine without further interventions. At least there is no waste of time.

The Unsatisfied

Fortunately, this is the profile that is the least met by the account manager. Basically, the client is not happy with our services and whatever the efforts the account manager might try to do, they will never meet the client’s needs. This discontent often comes from a misunderstanding of the partnership or from a request that cannot be fulfilled. Sometimes, the conflict might begin with a mistake from the account manager. Although, once the error is recognized, then everything possible will be done to repair the damage. This is by far the most interesting archetype that requires a lot of patience and diplomacy.

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

   ▶ All posts about Professional experiences

   ▶ Louis DETALLE A quick review of the M&A – Real Estate job…

   ▶ Ghali EL KOUHENE Asset valuation in the Real Estate sector

   ▶ Akshit GUPTA Sales – Job description

   ▶ Suyue MA Expeditionary experience in a Chinese investment banking boutique

   ▶ Raphaël ROERO DE CORTANZE In the shoes of a Corporate M&A Analyst

   ▶ Bijal GANDHI Operating profit

Useful resources

Ubiq www.ubiq.fr

About the author

The article was written in October 2021 by Clément KEFALAS (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor of Business Administration, 2021).

For any further information about the office real estate market or about client relationship management, feel free to email Clément Kéfalas at: b00730327@essec.edu.

A New Angle in M&A E-Commerce

A New Angle in M&A E-Commerce

Photo Antoine PERUSAT

In this article, Antoine PERUSAT (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor of Business Administration, 2019-2023) shares his working experience as an M&A Analyst at a start-Up.

The Company

Last summer, I worked for two months in London at a company specializing in Venture Capital (VC) of digital assets in the e-commerce market. The company was headed by financial specialists coming from a range of backgrounds such as hedge funds and investment banks. Yet, there were also many on-board programmers with expertise in finance because of prior experience in areas such as algorithmic trading.

The company had recently acquired a website for $1 million. After considering the slim margins attributed to affiliate schemes in which we provided this website’s online traffic on a commission basis, we decided to start backlinking the website to a drop shipping website which provided accessories at ‘cheap’ prices. For instance, we would write posts on the website we acquired, and their active audience would read articles with titles such as “top 10 vision equipment”, and 5 of those 10 would be linked to our drop shipping platform.

My Job as an M&A Analyst

My main job within this startup was to do the financial appraisal and forecasting of the potential of this new drop shipping venture. Obviously the first hindrance was that there were barely any historic data (17 days of data) and prior budgets to leverage in the forecasting.

I shadowed a former PwC Vice President specialized in M&A and I learnt a lot from the ‘learning by doing’ process which is concurrently one of ESSEC’s main values. The forecast and model provided the board of investors with an overview of our cash-generating projects.

All these figures are based on inputs that were placed into the forecasts.

Figure 1 – Forecasts based on 17-day data input values.

GGD Forecasts

Source: GGD Forecasts

My work

The surrounding macro-variables are instrumental to the success of this project because these products are manufactured in China and shipped all the way to the U.S. I drew up a detailed PESTEL specific to arms and its accessories. I chose to make it as detailed as possible by also applying a base scenario, an upside scenario and a downside scenario to the P&Ls which would forecast the next 24 months. I used color coding which is a simple but instrumental and valuable method to present data in a tidy manner: assumptions in blue, hard coded input in blue, drivers in green and formulae in black. Other simplifiers include shortcuts and skills such as not using the mouse. The P&L’s all had to follow the traditional accounting format so that any financial analyst could quickly skim over it without issue. Although it was mainly for the board of investors, they could check back to the detailed sheet if they had further questions.

Figure 2 – Detailed Forecasts (Inputs).

GGD detailed forecasts

Source: GGD Forecasts

This kind of complexity is great if you are willing to put a few hours into studying the forecasts at great length.

Figure 3 – P&L (Upside).

GGD PL

Source: GGD Forecasts

However, this is much faster and simpler. The element of choice is what the investor wants.

Side Projects

The start-up nature of the company meant that I had to complete other tasks than just forecasting. I conducted internal presentations of the company stock option policy to all new recruits. This taught me a lot about the value of equity in a world structured with salaries and bonuses.

Another side project was writing the prospectus of over 300 bicycle websites ranging from forums, magazines, and e-commerce platforms. This prospectus would be used to discover investment opportunities.
Research also formed a substantial part of my internship, and I undertook market research on our e-commerce competitors and their Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) like revenue figures and cash cow assets as well as their different investors and funding in initial rounds.
Here are a few KPIs on who the market leaders are in terms of e-commerce sellers and the materials sold as well as the overall revenue figures of the market.

Figure 4 – Overview of E-commerce competitors in the UK mattress market.

Ecommerce competitors

Source: Company – European Mattress Market Analysis

M&A valuation methods

On my first day during lunch, the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the company told me that fundamental analysis and traditional financial evaluation methods were all pretty much useless for our M&A operations. You can imagine this quite shocking to hear as an intern who came in to specialize in M&A, but I understood why he said this soon enough. Most of the prospectus portfolio we were involved with included internet platforms with little historical data (sometimes less than one year) which was of no use. So, from a financial aspect, we would usually just take a multiple of their Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and Amortization (EBITDA) like X3 and sometimes X4.
To do the valuation work of the different prospects of interest, we would use Ahrefs (Search Engine Optimization audit software).

Figure 5. Ahrefs Audit Software.

Ahrefs Audit Softwares

Source: https://www.blogdumoderateur.com/tools/ahrefs/

Not only is this a great tool in order to see how lucrative the acquisition is but its true value came into play after the acquisition. We could see general KPI’s such as traffic value and portfolio website health so that we could apply the required SEO mechanisms to maximize the investment’s value.

Final Message

My main message is that we mainly all come from academic institutions and families which force us down a structured and standardized route. For example, in finance, you can usually kick off your career in a range of routes like asset management, investment banking, trading, etc. The growth in new-age financial roles may incorporate more risk exposure in your career but they can provide a more stimulating and rewarding route!

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

   ▶ All posts about Professional experiences

   ▶ Raphaël ROERO DE CORTANZE In the shoes of a Corporate M&A Analyst

   ▶ Suyue MA Expeditionary experience in a Chinese investment banking boutique

   ▶ Anna BARBERO Career in finance

Useful resources

Ahrefs

WallStreetOasis (WSO) Financial Modeling Best Practices: Color Conventions

SPS commerce E-Commerce and the New Age of Retail

Le coin des Entrepreneurs Analyse PESTEL : définition, utilité et présentation des 6 composants (in French)

Philippe Gattet Comprendre l’analyse PESTEL Xerfi video (in French).

About the author

The article was written in October 2021 by Antoine PERUSAT (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor of Business Administration, 2019-2023).

Programming Languages for Quants

Programming Languages for Quants

Jayati WALIA

In this article, Jayati WALIA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2019-2022) presents an overview of popular programming languages used in quantitative finance.

Introduction

Finance as an industry has always been very responsive to new technologies. The past decades have witnessed the inclusion of innovative technologies, platforms, mathematical models and sophisticated algorithms solve to finance problems. With tremendous data and money involved and low risk-tolerance, finance is becoming more and more technological and data science, blockchain and artificial intelligence are taking over major decision-making strategies by the power of high processing computer algorithms that enable us to analyze enormous data and run model simulations within nanoseconds with high precision.

This is exactly why programming is a skill which is increasingly in demand. Programming is needed to analyze financial data, compute financial prices (like options or structured products), estimate financial risk measures (like VaR) and test investment strategies, etc. Now we will see an overview of popular programming languages used in modelling and solving problems in the quantitative finance domain.

Python

Python is general purpose dynamic high level programming language (HLL). It’s effortless readability and straightforward syntax allows not just the concept to be expressed in relatively fewer lines of code but also makes it’s learning curve less steep.

Python possesses some excellent libraries for mathematical applications like statistics and quantitative functions such as numpy, scipy and scikit-learn along with the plethora of accessible open source libraries that add to its overall appeal. It supports multiple programming approaches such as object-oriented, functional, and procedural styles.

Python is most popular for data science, machine learning and AI applications. With data science becoming crucial in the financial services industry, it has consequently created an immense demand for Python, making it a programming language of top choice.

C++

The finance world has been dominated by C++ for valid reasons. C++ is one of the essential programming languages in the fintech industry owing to its execution speed. Developers can leverage C++ when they need to programme with advanced computations with low latency in order to process multiple functions fasters such as in High Frequency Trading (HFT) systems. This language offers code reusability (which is crucial in multiple complex quantitative finance projects) to programmers with a diverse library comprising of various tools to execute.

Java

Java is known for its reliability, security and logical architecture with its object-oriented programming to solve complicated problems in the finance domain. Java is heavily used in the sell-side operations of finance involving projects with complex infrastructures and exceptionally robust security demands to run on native as well as cross-platform tools. This language can help manage enormous sets of real-time data with the impeccable security in bookkeeping activity. Financial institutions, particularly investment banks, use Java and C# extensively for their entire trading architecture, including front-end trading interfaces, live data feeds and at times derivatives’ pricing.

R

R is an open source scripting language mostly used for statistical computing, data analytics and visualization along with scientific research and data science. R the most popular language among mathematical data miners, researchers, and statisticians. R runs and compiles on multiple platforms such as Unix, Windows and MacOS. However, it is not the easiest of languages to learn and uses command line scripting which may be complex to code for some.

Scala

Scala is a widely used programming language in banks with Morgan Stanley, Deutsche Bank, JP Morgan and HSBC are among many. Scala is particularly appropriate for banks’ front office engineering needs requiring functional programming (programs using only pure functions that are functions that always return an immutable result). Scala provides support for both object-oriented and functional programming. It is a powerful language with an elegant syntax.

Haskell and Julia

Haskell is a functional and general-purpose programming language with user-friendly syntax, and a wide collection of real-world libraries for user to develop the quant solving application using this language. The major advantage of Haskell is that it has high performance, is robust and is useful for modelling mathematical problems and programming language research.

Julia, on the other hand, is a dynamic language for technical computing. It is suitable for numerical computing, dynamic modelling, algorithmic trading, and risk analysis. It has a sophisticated compiler, numerical accuracy with precision along with a functional mathematical library. It also has a multiple dispatch functionality which can help define function behavior across various argument combinations. Julia communities also provide a powerful browser-based graphical notebook interface to code.

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

   ▶ Jayati WALIA Quantitative Finance

   ▶ Jayati WALIA Quantitative Risk Management

   ▶ Jayati WALIA Value at Risk

   ▶ Akshit GUPTA The Black-Scholes-Merton model

Useful Resources

Websites

QuantInsti Python for Trading

Bankers by Day Programming languages in FinTech

Julia Computing Julia for Finance

R Examples R Basics

About the author

The article was written in October 2021 by Jayati WALIA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2019-2022).

Decentralized finance (DeFi)

Decentralized finance (DeFi)

Youssef EL QAMCAOUI

In this article, Youssef EL QAMCAOUI (ESSEC Business School, Master in Strategy & Management of International Business (SMIB), 2020-2021) discusses decentralized finance (DeFi).

From cryptocurrencies to decentralized finance

As you may know, Bitcoin is a form of money (cryptocurrency) that isn’t controlled by any central bank or government. It can be transferred to anyone from anyone around the world, without the need of a bank or a financial institution. Bitcoin is decentralized money.

However, transferring money is only the first of many building blocks in a financial system. Aside from sending money to one another, there are a variety of financial services we use today. For example, loans, saving plans, insurance and stock markets are all services that are built around money and together create our financial system.

Today, our financial system and all its services are completely centralized. Banks, stock markets, insurance companies and other financial institutions all have someone in charge, whether it be a company or a person, that controls and offers these services. This centralized financial system has its risks – mismanagement, fraud and corruption to name a few. But what if we could decentralize the financial system as a whole in the same way Bitcoin decentralized money?

That’s exactly what DeFi is all about. DeFi is a term given to financial services that have no central authority or someone in charge. Using decentralized money, like some cryptocurrencies, that can also be programmed for automated activities, we can build exchanges, lending services, insurance companies and other organizations that don’t have any owner and aren’t controlled by anyone.

How to build decentralized finance

Platform based on Ethereum

In order to create a decentralized financial system, the first thing we need is an infrastructure for programming and running decentralized services. That is the main objective of Ethereum. Ethereum is a Do-It-Yourself platform for writing decentralized programs also known as decentralized apps. By using Ethereum we can write automated code, also known as smart contracts, that manage any financial service we’d like to create in a decentralized manner. This means that we determine the rules as to how a certain service will work, and once we deploy those rules on the Ethereum network, we no longer have control over them – they are immutable.

Once we have a system in place like Ethereum for creating decentralized apps, we can start building our decentralized financial system.

Now let’s take a look at some of the building blocks that comprise it. The first thing any financial system needs is of course money. “why not use Bitcoin or Ether, which is Ethereum’s currency?” Whilst Bitcoin is indeed decentralized, it has only very basic programmable functionality and is not compatible with the Ethereum platform. Ether, on the other hand, is compatible and programmable. However, it is also highly volatile.

Figure 1 presents a map of the DeFi ecosystem broken down by category: payments, custodial services, infrastructure, exchanges and liquidity, investing, know you customer (KYC) and identity, derivatives, marketplaces, stablecoins, prediction markets, insurance, and credit and lending.

Figure 1. A map of the DeFi ecosystem, broken down by category.

Ethereum’s DeFi
Source: The Block

Stablecoins

If we’re looking to build reliable financial services that people will want to use, we’ll need a more stable currency to operate within this system. This is where stablecoins come in. Stablecoins are cryptocurrencies that are pegged to the value of a real-world asset, usually some major currency like the US dollar.

For the purpose of DeFi, we’ll want to use a stablecoin that doesn’t use fiat money reserves for maintaining a peg, since this will require some sort of central authority. This is where the stablecoin DAI comes into play. DAI is a decentralized cryptocurrency pegged against the value of the US dollar, meaning one DAI equals one US dollar. Unlike other popular stablecoins whose value is backed directly by US Dollar reserves, DAI is backed by crypto collaterals that can be viewed publicly on the Ethereum blockchain. DAI is over collateralized, meaning if you lock up in a deposit $1 worth of Ether, you can borrow 66 cents worth of DAI. As soon as you want your Ether back, just pay back the DAI you borrowed and the Ether will be released.

If you don’t have any Ether to lock up as collateral, you can just buy DAI on an exchange. Because DAI is over collateralized, even if Ether’s price becomes extremely volatile, the value of the locked Ether backing the DAI in circulation will most likely still remain at 100% or more. In essence, the DAI stablecoin is actually also a smart contract that resides on the Ethereum platform. This makes DAI a truly a decentralized stablecoin which cannot be shut down nor censored, hence it’s a perfect form of money for other DeFi services.

Financial ecosystem

Now that our decentralized financial system has stable decentralized money, it’s time to create some additional services. The first use case that we’ll discuss is the decentralized exchange (DEX). DEXes operate according to a set of rules, or smart contracts, that allow users to buy, sell, or trade cryptocurrencies. Just like DAI they also reside on the Ethereum platform which means they operate without a central authority. When you trade on a DEX, there is no exchange operator, no sign-ups, no identity verification, and no withdrawal fees. Instead, the smart contracts enforce the rules, execute trades, and securely handle funds when necessary. Also, unlike a centralized exchange, there’s often no need to deposit funds into an exchange account before conducting a trade. This eliminates the major risk of exchange hacking which exists for all centralized exchanges. But the range of decentralized financial services doesn’t stop there. When it comes to decentralized money markets – services that connect borrowers with lenders – Compound is an Ethereum based borrowing and lending decentralized app. This means you can lend your crypto out and earn interest on it. Alternatively, maybe you need some money to pay the rent or buy groceries, but the only funds you have are cryptocurrencies. If that’s the case you can deposit your crypto as collateral and borrow against it. The Compound platform automatically connects the lenders with borrowers, enforces the terms of the loans, and distributes the interest. The process of earning interest on cryptocurrencies has become extremely popular lately, giving rise to “yield farming” – A term given to the effort of putting crypto assets to work while seeking to generate the most returns possible.

So we have decentralized stablecoins, decentralized exchanges and decentralized money markets.

How about decentralized insurance?

All of these new financial products definitely entail some risks. That is where insurance comes in in case something goes wrong: a decentralized platform that connects people who are willing to pay for insurance with people who are willing to insure them for a premium, while everything happens autonomously without any insurance company or agent in the middle, DeFi services work in conjunction with one another, making it possible to mix and match different services to create new and exciting opportunities.

DeFi: money legos

The term ‘money legos’ has been coined to refer to DeFi services as it reminds of building structures out of Lego blocks. For example, you can build the following service from different money legos:

  • You start out by using a decentralized exchange aggregator to find the exchange with the best rate for swapping Ether for DAI.
  • You then select the DEX you want and conduct the trade. Then you lend the DAI you received to borrowers to earn interest.
  • Finally, you can add insurance to this process to make sure you’re covered in case anything goes wrong.

That’s just one example out of the many opportunities DeFi offers. Some of the main advantages that have driven interest towards DeFi are understandably transparency, interoperability, decentralization, free for all services and flexible user experience, among others. However, there are also some risks you should be aware of. The most important risk is that DeFi is still in its infancy, and this means that things can go wrong due to operational risks. Smart contracts have had issues in the past where people didn’t define the rules for certain services correctly and hackers found creative ways to exploit existing loopholes in order to steal money.

Additionally, you should remember that a system is decentralized only as its most central component. This means that some services may be only partially decentralized while still keeping some centralized aspects that can act as a weakness to the project. It’s important to understand exactly how a product or service works before investing in it so you can be aware of any issues that may come up.

Conclusion

To sum it up, it seems that the DeFi revolution has reached its early adopter stage and the coming years will tell if it manages to cross the chasm into mainstream adoption. There’s no doubt that a decentralized financial system can benefit a huge portion of the population that currently suffers from financial discrimination, high fees, and inefficiencies in managing their funds.

Why should I be interested in this post?

This might be of interest to you if you are trying to get to know the ecosystem of Decentralized Finance and you are interested in cryptocurrencies and getting slowly your assets out of the traditional centralized finance (banks, fund managements, etc.).

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

   ▶ Alexandre VERLET Cryptocurrencies

   ▶ Alexandre VERLET The NFTs, a new gold rush?

Useful resources

Forbes Decentralized finance will change your understanding of financial systems

Investopedia Decentralized finance

The conversation What is decentralized finance? An expert on bitcoins and blockchains explains the risks and rewards of DeFi

The Financial Times (29/12/2019) DeFi movement promises high interest but high risk

About the author

The article was written in October 2021 by Youssef EL QAMCAOUI (ESSEC Business School, Master in Strategy & Management of International Business (SMIB), 2020-2021).

The Warren Buffett Indicator

The Warren Buffett Indicator

Youssef EL QAMCAOUI

In this article, Youssef EL QAMCAOUI (ESSEC Business School, Master in Strategy & Management of International Business (SMIB), 2020-2021) discusses the Warren Buffett Indicator.

It is no secret that stock prices are all-time highs and people have been asking the important question: are we in a stock market bubble? According to the Warren Buffett Indicator, the answer to that question is YES.

Let’s discuss what exactly the Warren Buffett Indicator is, why it is showing that this stock market is the most overvalued in history and why the stock market would have to fall by more than 50% to be considered fairly valued based on historical averages.

Definition and origin of the Warren Buffett Indicator

The Warren Buffett Indicator is defined as the ratio between the US Wilshire 5000 index to US Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In other words, it is the American stock market valuation to US GDP divided by the size of the American economy.

It is used to determine how cheap or expensive the stock market is at a given point in time. It was named after the legendary investor Warren Buffett who called in 2001 the ratio “the best single measure of where valuations stand at any given moment”. It is widely followed by the financial media and investors as a valuation measure for the US stock market and has hit an all-time high in 2021.

To calculate the Warren Buffett Indicator, we need to get data for both metrics: the US Wilshire 5000 index and the US GDP.

The US Wilshire 5000 index

To determine the total stock market value of the US, Warren Buffett uses the Wilshire 5000 index. This index is a broad-based market capitalization weighted index composed of 3,451 publicly traded companies that meet the following criteria:

  • The companies are headquartered in the United States.
  • The stocks are listed and actively traded on a US stock exchange.
  • The stocks have pricing information that is widely available to the public.

The Wilshire 5000 index is a better measure of the total value of the US stock market than other more popular stock market indices such as the S&P500 the Dow Jones or the NASDAQ. In the case of the S&P500, it only measures the 500 largest US companies. The Dow Jones has only 30 component companies and the NASDAQ consists of mostly tech companies and excludes companies listed on the NYSE. On the other hand, the Wilshire 5000 is often used as a benchmark for the entirety of the US stock market and is widely regarded as the best single measure of the overall US equity market.

In 2021, the market capitalization of the Wilshire 5000 is approximately 47.1 trillion dollars.

The US GDP

The US GDP which represents the total production of the US economy. It is measured quarterly by the US Government’s Bureau of Economic Analysis. The GDP is a static measurement of prior economic activity meaning it does not forecast the future or include any expectation or evaluation of future economic activity or growth. In 2021, the US GDP is 22.7 trillion dollars.

The Warren Buffett Indicator

Knowing the value of the US Wilshire 5000 index and the value of the US GDP, we can compute the value of the Warren Buffett Indicator:

(47.1 / 22.7)*100 = 207.5%.

Without any historical context this number doesn’t say anything so let’s dive into it.

Evolution of the Warren Buffett Indicator

Figure 1 gives the evolution of the Warren Buffett Indicator over the period 1987-2021. This figure underlines how extremely high the Warren Buffett Indicator currently is compared to historical averages.

Figure 1. The Warren Buffett Indicator (1987-2021).

 History Warren Buffet Indicator
Source: www.longtermtrends.net

The Warren Buffett Indicator at 207% is tremendously higher than periods that turned out to be huge market bubbles such as “.com” bubble in March of 2000 where the Warren Buffett Indicator topped out at 140%. Even at the top of the housing bubble in October 2007 looks significantly tame at 104% compared to today’s level of nearly double that.

Since 1970, the average Warren Buffett Indicator reading has been at around 85%. In fact, for the stock market to be considered fairly valued based on historical averages, the total value of the stock market would have to fall to 19.3 trillion, far from the current value of 47.1 trillion. This means it would take a 60% stock market crash for the Warren Buffett Indicator to fall back to its historical average of 85%.

Use of the Warren Buffett Indicator for investment

But what does this mean for future investing returns? Over the last 10 years the S&P500 returns have been extremely strong at an average of 12.5% per year – well above historical trends.

Let’s look at how Warren Buffett used the thinking around the Warren Buffett Indicator to help make predictions about future returns from the stock market during these crazy times. Warren Buffett has been known to be hesitant about making predictions about the stock market but there have been a few times where Buffett used the Warren Buffett Indicator to help make accurate predictions about the future returns of the stock market in November 1999 when the Dow Jones was at 11,000 – and just a few months before the burst of the dot-com bubble – the stock market gained 13% a year from 1981 to 1998. The Warren Buffett Indicator was at 130% significantly higher than ever before in the past 30 years.

Warren Buffett said at the time that 13% return is impossible if you strip out the inflation component from this nominal return which you would need to do. However, inflation fluctuates that’s 4% in real terms and if 4%.

Two years after the November 1999 article when the Dow Jones was down to 9,000, Warren Buffett stated: “I would expect now to see long-term returns somewhat higher [around] 7% after costs”. He revised his expectations for future returns higher because the Warren Buffett Indicator had come down significantly from its high of 130% in November 1999 to 93% just two years later – meaning stocks were more fairly valued and as a result prospective future returns were higher.

In October 2008, after the S&P500 had fallen from a high of greater than 1,500 in July 2007 to around 900, Warren Buffett wrote “Equities will almost certainly outperform cash over the next decade probably by a substantial degree. At that moment, the indicator was at around 60%. This was not a popular prediction and people were selling out of stocks because they were worried about the future. They had seen stock prices fall consistently and wanted to sell out of stocks before they kept falling more. Since Warren Buffett made this call in October 2008, the S&P500 has returned an average annualized return of 14.7% with dividends reinvested. This return is significantly higher than the long-term historical return of the stock market.

To grasp the Warren Buffett Indicator has been a good gauge of future stock market returns, it is needed to understand the reason stocks can’t rise 25% or more a year forever. This is because over the long term, stock market returns are determined by the following:

Interest rate

The higher the interest rate, the greater the downward pole. This is because the rate of return that investors need from any kind of investment is directly tied to the risk-free rate that they can earn from government securities. As Warren Buffett explained: “If the government rate rises the prices of all other investments must adjust downward to a level that brings their expected rates of return into line. If government interest rates fall, the dynamic pushes the prices of all other investments upward”.

Long-term growth of corporate profitability

Over the long-term, corporate profitability reverts to its long-term trend (~6%). During recessions, corporate profit margins shrink and during economic growth periods corporate profit margins expand. Nonetheless, long-term growth of corporate profitability is closely tied to long-term economic growth.

Current market valuation

Over the long run, stock market valuation tends to revert to its historical average. A higher current valuation certainly correlates with lower long-term returns in the future. On the other hand, a lower current valuation correlates with a higher long-term return.

Discussion

That being said there are some points that we add to discuss this perspective.

Historically low interest rates

Figure 2 represents the history of interest rates in the US for the period 1960-2021.

Figure 2. History of interest rates in the US.

History US interest rates
Source: www.macrotrends.net

This figure shows that the current interest rate on 10-year US government bonds has never been so low. This extremely low level of interest rates partially helps to explain the high stock market valuation by historical standards. As Warren Buffet stated: “As interest rates rise stocks become less valuable and as interest rates decrease stock prices increase all else being equal”.

Companies are staying private for longer

As companies stay private for longer, these companies are not included in the value of the stock market. If these companies had decided to go public, the market cap of Wilshire 5000 would be higher as the index currently contains around 3,500 stocks. Since this index only counts publicly traded companies, if large non-publicly traded companies were also included in the value of the index, the value of the Warren Buffet Indicator would increase – although likely not by a large enough factor.

Why should I be interested in this post?

You might be interested in this topic if you are aware or are trying to get knowledge around the stock market and the possible crash that is being discussed in 2021. This might help you understand what the current situation is and why we are talking about this. But it also gives you insights to understand how important this topic can become in the very near future.

Useful resources

Data to compute the Warren Buffett Indicator

Federal Reserve Economic Data US GDP

Federal Reserve Economic Data Wilshire 5000 Full Cap Price Index

Other

Wilshire www.wilshire.com

Current market valuation Buffet Indicator

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

   ▶ Bijal GANDHI Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

   ▶ Rayan AKKAWI Warren Buffet and his basket of eggs

About the author

The article was written in October 2021 by Youssef EL QAMCAOUI (ESSEC Business School, Master in Strategy & Management of International Business (SMIB), 2020-2021).

Smart Beta industry main actors

Youssef_Louraoui

In this article, Youssef LOURAOUI (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor of Business Administration, 2017-2021) presents the main actors of the smart beta industry, which is estimated to represent a cumulative market value of $1.9 trillion as of 2017 and is projected to grow to $3.4 trillion by 2022 (BlackRock, 2021).

The structure of this post is as follows: we begin by presenting an overview of the smart beta industry actors. We will then discuss the case of BlackRock, the 10 trillion dollar powerhouse of the asset management industry, which is the main actor in the smart beta industry segment.

Overview of the market

The asset management sector, which is worth 100 trillion dollars worldwide, is primarily divided into active and passive management (BCG, 2021). While active management continues to dominate the market, passive management’s proportion of total assets under managed (AUM) increased by 4 percentage points between 2008 and 2019, reaching 15%. This market transition is even more dramatic in the United States, where passive management accounted for more than 40% of the total market share in 2019. A new category has arisen and begun to acquire market share over the last decade. Smart beta exchange-traded funds (ETFs) are receiving fresh inflows and are the industry’s fastest-growing ETF product. Various players are entering the market by developing and releasing new products (Deloitte, 2021).

Active funds have demonstrated divergent returns when compared to passive funds, making the cost difference increasingly difficult to justify (Figure 1). The growing market share of passive funds in both the United States and the European Union is putting further pressure on active managers’ fees. When it comes to meeting the demands of investors, both active and passive management has shown shortcomings. Active management funds often fail to outperform their benchmarks because they lack clear indicators, charge expensive fees, and don’t always have clear indicators. As seen in Figure 1, active funds struggle to deliver consistent returns over a prolonged timeframe, as depicted in the European market. In this sense, the active funds success rate is divided by more than half between year one and year three (Deloitte, 2021). Concentration is a problem for passive funds that are weighted by market capitalization.. These limits have prepared the ground for smart beta funds to emerge (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Active funds success rates (% of funds beating their index over X years)
Active funds success rates
Source: Deloitte (2021).

The smart beta market is dominated by several players who have a strategic position with a large volume of assets under management. Figure 2 compares smart beta actors based on percentage of asset under management (%AUM), one the most important metric in the asset management industry. Some key elements can be drawn for the first figure. BlackRock is the provider with the largest market share, with over 40% of the smart beta industry in the analysis, followed by Vanguard and State Street Global Advisors with 30.66% and 18.44% respectively in this benchmark study underpinning nearly $1 trillion (Figure 2).

Figure 2. % AUM of the biggest Smart Beta ETF providers
Smart_Beta_benchmark_analysis
Source: etf.com (2021).

BlackRock dominance

The main powerhouses of the passive investing industry, BlackRock and Vanguard, are poised to capture the lion’s share of assets in the rapidly rising world of actively managed exchange-traded funds. The conclusion is likely to dissatisfy active fund managers, who have been squeezed by the fast development of passive ETFs in recent years and may have seen the introduction of active ETFs as a chance to fight back and get a piece of the lucrative pie (Financial Times, 2021).

According to a study of 320 institutional investors with a combined $12.9 trillion in assets, institutional investors prefer BlackRock and Vanguard to handle their active ETF investments. The juggernauts were expected to provide the best performance as well as the best value for money. With over a third of the global ETF market capitalization, BlackRock remains the dominant player (The Financial Times, 2021). BlackRock is unquestionably a major force in the ETF business, with an unparalleled market share in both the US and European ETF markets. BlackRock has expanded to become the world’s largest asset manager, managing funds for everyone from pensioners to oligarchs and sovereign wealth funds. It is now one of the largest stockholders in practically every major American corporation — as well as a number of overseas corporations. It is also one among the world’s largest lenders to businesses and governments.

Aladdin, the company’s technological platform, provides critical wiring for large portions of the worldwide investing industry. By the end of June this year, BlackRock was managing a stunning $9.5 trillion in assets, a sum that would be hardly understandable to most of the 35 million Americans whose retirement accounts were managed by the business in 2020. If the current rate of growth continues, BlackRock’s third-quarter reports on October 13 might disclose that the company’s market capitalization has surpassed $10 trillion. It’s expected to have surpassed that mark by the end of the year (FT, 2021). To put this in perspective, it is about equivalent to the worldwide hedge fund, private equity, and venture capital industries combined.

Industry-wide fee cuts had helped BlackRock maintain its dominance in the ETF sector. Its iShares brand is the industry’s largest ETF provider for both passive and actively managed products (CNBC, 2021).

Why should I be interested in this post?

If you are a business school or university undergraduate or graduate student, this content will help you in understanding the various evolutions of asset management throughout the last decades and in broadening your knowledge of finance.

Smart beta funds have become a trending topic among investors in recent years. Smart beta is a game-changing invention that addresses an unmet need among investors: a higher return for lower risk, net of transaction and administrative costs. In a way, these investment strategies create a new market. As a result, smart beta is gaining traction and influencing the asset management industry.

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

Factor investing

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Factor Investing

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Origin of factor investing

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI MSCI Factor Indexes

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Smart beta 1.0

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Smart beta 2.0

Factors

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Size Factor

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Value Factor

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Yield Factor

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Momentum Factor

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Quality Factor

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Growth Factor

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Minimum Volatility Factor

Useful resources

Business analysis

BlackRock, 2021.What is factor investing?

BCG, 2021.The 100$ Trillion Machine: Global Asset Management 2021

CNBC, 2021. What Blackrock’s continued dominance means for other ETF issuers.

Deloitte, 2021. Will smart beta ETFs revolutionize the asset management industry? Understanding smart beta ETFs and their impact on active and passive fund managers

Etf.com, 2021.Smart Beta providers

Financial Times (13/09/2020) BlackRock and Vanguard look set to extend dominance to active ETFs

Financial Times (07/10/2021) The ten trillion dollar man: how Larry Fink became king of Wall St

About the author

The article was written in October 2021 by Youssef LOURAOUI (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor of Business Administration, 2017-2021).

MSCI Factor Indexes

Youssef_Louraoui

In this article, Youssef LOURAOUI (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor of Business Administration, 2017-2021) presents the MSCI Factor Indexes. MSCI is one of the most prominent actors in the indexing business, with approximately 236 billion dollars in assets benchmarked to the MSCI factor indexes.

The structure of this post is as follows: we begin by introducing MSCI Factor Indexes and the evolution of portfolio performance. We then delve deeper by describing the MSCI Factor Classification Standards (FaCS). We finish by analyzing factor returns over the last two decades.

Definition

Factor

A factor is any component that helps to explain the long-term risk and return performance of a financial asset. Factors have been extensively used in portfolio risk models and in quantitative investment strategies, and documented in academic research. Active fund managers use these characteristics while selecting securities and constructing portfolios. Factor indexes are a quick and easy way to get exposure to several return drivers. Factor investing aims to obtain greater risk-adjusted returns by exposing investors to stock features in a systematic way. Factor investing isn’t a new concept; it’s been utilized in risk models and quantitative investment techniques for a long time. Factors can also explain a portion of fundamental active investors’ long-term portfolio success. MSCI Factor Indexes use transparent and rules-based techniques to reflect the performance characteristics of a variety of investment types and strategies (MSCI Factor Research, 2021).

Performance analysis

Understanding portfolio returns is crucial to determining how to evaluate portfolio performance. It may be traced back to Harry Markowitz’s pioneering work and breakthrough research on portfolio design and the role of diversification in improving portfolio performance. Investors did not discriminate between the sources of portfolio gains throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Long-term portfolio management was dominated by active investment. The popularity of passive investment as an alternative basis for implementation was bolstered by finance research in the 1980s. Through passive allocation, investors began to effectively capture market beta. Investors began to perceive factors as major determinants of long-term success in the 2000s (MSCI Factor Research, 2021). Figure 1 presents the evolution of portfolio performance analysis over time: until the 1960s, based on the CAPM model, returns were explain by one factor only: the market return. Then, the market model was used to assess active portfolio with the alpha measuring the extra performance of the fund manager. Later on in the 2000s, the first evaluation model based on the market factor was augmented with other factors (size, value, etc.).

Figure 1. Evolution of portfolio performance analysis.
Evolution_portfolio_performance
Source: MSCI Research (2021).

MSCI Factor Index

MSCI Factor Classification Standards (FaCS) establishes a standard vocabulary and definitions for factors so that they may be understood by a wider audience. MSCI FaCS is comprised of 6 Factor Groups and 14 factors and is based on MSCI’s Barra Global Equity Factor Model (MSCI Factor Research, 2021) as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Factor decomposition of the different factor strategies.
MSCI_FaCS
Source: MSCI Research (2021).

The MSCI Factor Indexes are based on well-researched academic studies. The MSCI Factor Indexes were identified and developed based on academic results, creating a unified language to describe risk and return via the perspective of factors (MSCI Factor Research, 2021).

Performance of factors over time

Figure 2 compares the MSCI factor indexes’ performance from 1999 to May 2020. All indexes are rebalanced on a 100-point scale to ensure consistency in performance and to facilitate factor comparisons. Over a two-decade period, smart beta factors have all outperformed the MSCI World index, with the MSCI World Minimum Volatility Index as the most profitable factor which has consistently provided excess profits over the long run while (MSCI Factor research, 2021).

Figure 2. Performance of MSCI Factor Indexes during the period 1999-2017.
MSCI_performance
Source: MSCI Research (2021).

Individual factors have consistently outperformed the market over time. Figure 2 represents the performance of the MSCI Factor Indexes for the last two decades compared to the MSCI ACWI, which is MSCI’s flagship global equity index and is designed to represent the performance of large- and mid-cap stocks across 23 developed and 27 emerging markets.

It is possible to make some conclusions regarding the performance of the investment factor over the previous two decades by dissecting the performance of the various factorial strategies. The value factor was the one that drove performance in the first decade of the 2000s. This outperformance is characterized by a movement towards more conservative investment in a growing market environment. The dotcom bubble crash resulted in a bear market, with the minimal volatility approach helping to absorb market shocks in 2002. When it comes to the minimal volatility approach, it is evident that it is highly beneficial during moments of high volatility, acting as a viable alternative to hedging one’s stock market exposure and moving into more safe-haven products. Several times of extreme volatility may be recognized, including the dotcom boom, the US subprime crisis, and the European debt crisis as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Table of performance of MSCI Factor Indexes from 1999-2017.
MSCI_historical_performance
Source: MSCI Research (2021).

Why should I be interested in this post?

If you are a business school or university undergraduate or graduate student, this content will help you in understanding the evolution of asset management throughout the last decades and in broadening your knowledge of finance.

Smart beta funds have become a trending topic among investors in recent years. Smart beta is a game-changing invention that addresses an unmet need among investors: a higher return for lower risk, net of transaction and administrative costs. In a way, these investment strategies create a new market. As a result, smart beta is gaining traction and influencing the asset management industry.

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

Factor investing

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Factor Investing

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Origin of factor investing

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Smart beta 1.0

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Smart beta 2.0

Factors

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Size Factor

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Value Factor

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Yield Factor

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Momentum Factor

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Quality Factor

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Growth Factor

   ▶ Youssef LOURAOUI Minimum Volatility Factor

Useful resources

Business analysis

MSCI Factor Research, 2021.MSCI Factor Indexes

MSCI Factor Research, 2021. MSCI Factor Classification Standards (FaCS)

About the author

The article was written in October 2021 by Youssef LOURAOUI (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor of Business Administration, 2017-2021).