USD Coin: Deep Dive into the Role of Stablecoins in Modern Finance

January 15, 2025April 2, 2024 by Snehasish CHINARA

In this article, Snehasish CHINARA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2022-2024) explains the stable coin USD Coin.

Historical context and background

USD Coin (USDC) is a type of cryptocurrency known as a stablecoin, designed to maintain a stable value relative to the US dollar (USD). It was launched in September 2018 by Centre Consortium, a collaboration between cryptocurrency exchange Coinbase and blockchain technology company Circle. The primary goal of USDC is to provide a digital asset that can be easily transferred between users and used for transactions, while minimizing the volatility typically associated with other cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin or Ethereum.

The need for stablecoins like USDC arose due to the inherent volatility of many cryptocurrencies. While Bitcoin and other digital assets have gained significant attention and adoption, their prices can fluctuate dramatically over short periods, which can make them less practical for everyday transactions and financial contracts. Stablecoins like USDC offer a solution to this problem by pegging their value to a stable asset, such as the US dollar, thereby providing stability and predictability for users.

USDC operates on the Ethereum blockchain as an ERC-20 token, making it compatible with a wide range of decentralized applications (dApps) and enabling seamless integration with the broader cryptocurrency ecosystem. This infrastructure allows users to easily send and receive USDC tokens across various platforms and services, including exchanges, wallets, and payment processors.

Since its launch, USDC has seen significant growth in adoption and usage. It has become one of the most widely used stablecoins in the cryptocurrency market, with billions of dollars worth of USDC tokens in circulation. Its stability and liquidity have made it a popular choice for traders, investors, and businesses looking to transact in digital assets without exposure to the volatility of other cryptocurrencies.

USD Coin Logo

Source: Yahoo! Finance.

Figure 1. Key Dates in USDC History

Source: Yahoo! Finance.

Key features

Stability

USD Coin is a stablecoin, meaning it is pegged to the value of the US dollar on a 1:1 basis. This stability is maintained through regular audits and backing by reserves of US dollars held in custody by regulated financial institutions.

Transparency

USDC operates on blockchain technology, providing transparency and immutability of transactions. Every USDC token is backed by an equivalent number of US dollars held in reserve, which is regularly audited and transparently reported to ensure trust among users.

Speed and Efficiency

Transactions involving USDC can be executed quickly and efficiently on blockchain networks, enabling near-instantaneous settlement compared to traditional banking systems, which may take days for cross-border transactions.

Global Accessibility

USDC enables borderless transactions, allowing users to send and receive payments globally without the need for intermediaries such as banks. This accessibility empowers individuals and businesses, particularly in regions with limited access to traditional financial services.

Interoperability

USDC is compatible with various blockchain platforms and protocols, including Ethereum, Algorand, and Solana, among others. This interoperability facilitates its integration into a wide range of decentralized applications (DApps) and decentralized finance (DeFi) ecosystems.

Use cases

Remittances and Cross-Border Payments:

USDC provides a cost-effective and efficient solution for remittance payments and cross-border transactions, enabling individuals and businesses to transfer value across borders quickly and securely without the need for traditional banking intermediaries.

Stable Value Storage

Due to its stable value pegged to the US dollar, USDC serves as a reliable store of value and a hedge against volatility in the cryptocurrency market. Users can hold USDC as a stable asset to preserve purchasing power and mitigate the risks associated with price fluctuations in other cryptocurrencies.

Decentralized Finance (DeFi) Applications

USDC is widely used as a liquidity provider and collateral asset in various DeFi protocols and applications such as decentralized exchanges (DEXs), lending platforms, yield farming, and liquidity pools. Users can leverage USDC to earn interest, borrow assets, or participate in yield farming strategies within the DeFi ecosystem.

Commerce and Payments

Merchants and businesses can accept USDC as a form of payment for goods and services, leveraging its fast transaction settlement times and low transaction fees compared to traditional payment methods. Integrating USDC payments can streamline cross-border commerce and reduce friction associated with fiat currency conversions.

Financial Inclusion

USDC plays a crucial role in expanding financial inclusion by providing access to digital financial services for individuals and communities underserved by traditional banking infrastructure. By utilizing blockchain technology and stablecoins like USDC, individuals without access to traditional banking services can participate in the global economy and access a wide range of financial products and services.

Technology and underlying blockchain

USD Coin (USDC) operates on a blockchain-based infrastructure, primarily leveraging the Ethereum blockchain as its foundation. Utilizing Ethereum’s smart contract functionality, USDC tokens are issued, transferred, and redeemed in a transparent and trustless manner. The ERC-20 standard, a set of rules and protocols defining interactions between tokens on the Ethereum network, governs the behavior of USDC tokens, ensuring compatibility with a wide range of wallets, exchanges, and decentralized applications (DApps). Moreover, USDC employs a consortium model for governance and operation, with regulated financial institutions serving as members responsible for the issuance, custody, and redemption of USDC tokens. These institutions adhere to strict regulatory compliance measures and conduct regular audits to verify that each USDC token is fully backed by an equivalent reserve of US dollars held in custody. This combination of blockchain technology, smart contracts, and regulatory oversight ensures the integrity, transparency, and stability of USD Coin, making it a trusted and widely adopted stablecoin within the cryptocurrency ecosystem.

ERC-20 Standard of Ethereum for USD Coin

The ERC-20 standard, short for Ethereum Request for Comment 20, is a widely adopted technical specification governing the creation and implementation of fungible tokens on the Ethereum blockchain. Introduced by Fabian Vogelsteller and Vitalik Buterin in 2015, ERC-20 defines a set of rules and functions that enable seamless interoperability between different tokens, ensuring compatibility with various decentralized applications (DApps) and wallets. Tokens adhering to the ERC-20 standard are characterized by a consistent set of methods, including transfer, balance inquiry, and approval mechanisms, facilitating easy integration and widespread adoption across the Ethereum ecosystem. This standardization has played a pivotal role in the proliferation of tokenization, empowering developers to create diverse tokenized assets, conduct crowdfunding campaigns through Initial Coin Offerings (ICOs), and establish decentralized exchanges (DEXs) where ERC-20 tokens are traded autonomously. Additionally, ERC-20 compliance enhances security and interoperability, fostering trust and usability within the Ethereum network.

Supply of coins

The supply dynamics of USD Coin (USDC) are governed by its underlying smart contract protocol and the management of its issuer, Centre Consortium, a collaboration between Circle and Coinbase. USDC operates on a principle of full backing, where each USDC token issued is backed by an equivalent number of US dollars held in reserve. This backing ensures a 1:1 peg to the US dollar, maintaining its stability. The issuance and redemption of USDC are facilitated through regulated financial institutions that hold the corresponding fiat reserves. Moreover, USDC’s supply is transparently audited on a regular basis, with attestations provided by reputable auditing firms to verify the adequacy of reserves. Through these mechanisms, the supply of USDC remains elastic, expanding or contracting based on market demand while preserving its stability and trustworthiness as a stablecoin in the digital asset ecosystem.

Historical data for USDC

How to get the data?

The USDC is popular cryptocurrency on the market, and historical data for the USDC such as prices and volume traded can be easily downloaded from the internet sources such as Yahoo! Finance, Blockchain.com & CoinMarketCap. For example, you can download data for USDC on Yahoo! Finance (the Yahoo! code for USD Coin is USDC-USD).

Figure 2. USD Coin data

Source: Yahoo! Finance.

Historical data for the USD Coin market prices

The historical market price of USD Coin (USDC) has remained relatively stable, as its primary function is to maintain a value pegged to the US dollar at a 1:1 ratio. Since its inception, USDC has consistently traded around the $1 mark, with minor fluctuations typically attributed to market dynamics and liquidity conditions. Investors and traders often utilize USDC as a safe haven asset or a means of temporarily exiting volatile cryptocurrency markets, contributing to its stability. This stability has made USDC a preferred choice for individuals and institutions seeking to hedge against cryptocurrency volatility or facilitate seamless transitions between digital and fiat currencies. Additionally, the transparent backing of USDC by reserves of US dollars held in custody by regulated financial institutions further enhances market confidence and contributes to its stable market price over time.The historical market price of USD Coin (USDC) has remained relatively stable, as its primary function is to maintain a value pegged to the US dollar at a 1:1 ratio. Since its inception, USDC has consistently traded around the $1 mark, with minor fluctuations typically attributed to market dynamics and liquidity conditions. Investors and traders often utilize USDC as a safe haven asset or a means of temporarily exiting volatile cryptocurrency markets, contributing to its stability. This stability has made USDC a preferred choice for individuals and institutions seeking to hedge against cryptocurrency volatility or facilitate seamless transitions between digital and fiat currencies. Additionally, the transparent backing of USDC by reserves of US dollars held in custody by regulated financial institutions further enhances market confidence and contributes to its stable market price over time.

Figure 3 below represents the evolution of the price of USD Coin in US dollar over the period Oct 2018 – Dec 2022. The price corresponds to the “closing” price (observed at 10:00 PM CET at the end of the month).

Figure 3. Evolution of the USD Coin price

Source: Yahoo! Finance.

R program

The R program below written by Shengyu ZHENG allows you to download the data from Yahoo! Finance website and to compute summary statistics and risk measures about the USD Coin.

Data file

The R program that you can download above allows you to download the data for the USD Coin from the Yahoo! Finance website. The database starts on Oct, 2018. Table 1 below represents the top of the data file for the USD Coin downloaded from the Yahoo! Finance website with the R program.

Table 1. Top of the data file for the USD Coin

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Python code

You can download the Python code used to download the data from Yahoo! Finance.

Python script to download USD Coin historical data and save it to an Excel sheet::

import yfinance as yf

import pandas as pd

# Define the ticker symbol for USD Coin

usdc_ticker = “USDC-USD”

# Define the date range for historical data

start_date = “2020-01-01”

end_date = “2022-01-01”

# Download historical data using yfinance

usdc_data = yf.download(usdc_ticker, start=start_date, end=end_date)

# Create a Pandas DataFrame from the downloaded data

usdc_df = pd.DataFrame(usdc_data)

# Define the Excel file path

excel_file_path = “USDC_historical_data.xlsx”

# Save the data to an Excel sheet

usdc_df.to_excel(excel_file_path, sheet_name=”USDC Historical Data”)

print(f”Data saved to {excel_file_path}”)

# Make sure you have the required libraries installed and adjust the “start_date” and “end_date” variables to the desired date range for the historical data you want to download.

Evolution of the USD Coin

Figure 4 below gives the evolution of the USDC on a daily basis.

Figure 4. Evolution of the USD Coin.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Figure 5 below gives the evolution of the USD Coin returns from Oct, 2018 to December 31, 2022 on a daily basis.

Figure 5. Evolution of the USD Coin returns

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Summary statistics for the USD Coin

The R program that you can download above also allows you to compute summary statistics about the returns of the USD Coin. Table 2 below presents the following summary statistics estimated for the USD Coin:

The mean

The standard deviation (the squared root of the variance)

The skewness

The kurtosis.

The mean, the standard deviation / variance, the skewness, and the kurtosis refer to the first, second, third and fourth moments of statistical distribution of returns respectively.

Table 2. Summary statistics for USDC.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Statistical distribution of the USD Coin returns

Historical distribution

Figure 6 represents the historical distribution of the USD Coin daily returns for the period from Oct, 2018 to December 31, 2022.

Figure 6. Historical USDC distribution of the returns.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Gaussian distribution

The Gaussian distribution (also called the normal distribution) is a parametric distribution with two parameters: the mean and the standard deviation of returns. We estimated these two parameters over the period from October, 2018 to December 31, 2022.

Figure 7 below represents the Gaussian distribution of the USD Coin daily returns with parameters estimated over the period from October, 2018 to December, 2022.

Figure 7. Gaussian distribution of the USDC returns.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Risk measures of the USD Coin returns

The R program that you can download above also allows you to compute risk measures about the returns of the USD Coin.

Table 3 below presents the following risk measures estimated for the USD Coin:

The long-term volatility (the unconditional standard deviation estimated over the entire period)

The short-term volatility (the standard deviation estimated over the last three months)

The Value at Risk (VaR) for the left tail (the 5% quantile of the historical distribution)

The Value at Risk (VaR) for the right tail (the 95% quantile of the historical distribution)

The Expected Shortfall (ES) for the left tail (the average loss over the 5% quantile of the historical distribution)

The Expected Shortfall (ES) for the right tail (the average loss over the 95% quantile of the historical distribution)

The Stress Value (SV) for the left tail (the 1% quantile of the tail distribution estimated with a Generalized Pareto distribution)

The Stress Value (SV) for the right tail (the 99% quantile of the tail distribution estimated with a Generalized Pareto distribution)

Table 3. Risk measures for the USDC.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

The volatility is a global measure of risk as it considers all the returns. The Value at Risk (VaR), Expected Shortfall (ES) and Stress Value (SV) are local measures of risk as they focus on the tails of the distribution. The study of the left tail is relevant for an investor holding a long position in the XRP while the study of the right tail is relevant for an investor holding a short position in the XRP.

Why should I be interested in this post?

The post offers an opportunity for both newcomers and seasoned cryptocurrency enthusiasts to delve into the concept of stablecoins, gaining insights into how digital assets maintain stability amidst market volatility. Furthermore, the post highlights USDC’s role in fostering financial inclusion by enabling borderless transactions, appealing to readers passionate about democratizing finance. Additionally, exploring USDC’s significance in the burgeoning realm of decentralized finance (DeFi) could intrigue those interested in innovative financial technologies and investment opportunities. Examining USDC’s historical performance and market dynamics can offer valuable insights for investors and traders, while shedding light on its compliance measures and regulatory landscape can address concerns regarding legal risks, contributing to readers’ understanding and confidence in this digital asset.

Useful resources

Academic research about risk

Longin F. (2000) From VaR to stress testing: the extreme value approach Journal of Banking and Finance, N°24, pp 1097-1130.

Longin F. (2016) Extreme events in finance: a handbook of extreme value theory and its applications Wiley Editions.

Data

Yahoo! Finance

Yahoo! Finance Historical data for USDC

CoinMarketCap Historical data for USDC

About the author

The article was written in March 2024 by Snehasish CHINARA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2022-2024).

Private Banks : Treasuries Departments and proprietary asset allocation

April 1, 2024 by Quentin CHUZET

Private Banks : Treasuries Departments and proprietary asset allocation

In this article, Quentin CHUZET (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), 2019-2023) explains about Private banks Treasuries Departments and the challenges of proprietary asset allocation.

Introduction

Within the Treasury Department of a Private Bank, the role of its employees is to record incoming and outgoing cash flows, as well as to direct the allocation of assets that comprise its Treasury. Thus, on one hand, we find the amount of cash on the asset side, and on the other hand, on the liability side, the amount of client deposits. In other words, it can be said that the Treasury is primarily constituted by the various deposits made by clients.

These are grouped into 2 categories: sight deposits (money visible in the client’s bank account, available and usable at any time) and term deposits (money placed generally in interest-bearing accounts but only available once the placement has matured).

Private Bank balance sheet

Source: La Finance Pour Tous

To address performance and revenue challenges, the Treasury department manages cash by investing it in interest-bearing products, aiming to generate significant margins. This activity, performed by the Middle and Front Office teams, is referred to as proprietary trading or prop asset allocation.

Before the 2008 financial crisis, the regulatory environment was less stringent, granting banks greater freedom in risk management. However, the crisis highlighted the dangers of this approach, leading to a significant strengthening of regulations.

In 2013, Basel III introduced one of the most important regulatory agreements in banking. It aims to enhance the resilience of banks by increasing their capital and liquidity requirements. Basel III notably introduced a short-term liquidity ratio (LCR) and a long-term liquidity ratio (NSFR).

Regarding liquidity, private banks must now hold sufficient liquid assets to withstand mass deposit withdrawals. They must also comply with a liquidity coverage ratio (LCR), requiring them to have enough high-quality liquid assets to cover their net cash outflows over a 30-day period.

In terms of solvency, private banks must now comply with a capital adequacy ratio (Cooke ratio), requiring them to have sufficient capital to absorb potential losses. Basel III also introduced a leverage ratio, limiting banks’ leverage.

To ensure compliance with these new regulatory frameworks while continuing to maximize revenue, banks have implemented treasury policies and control ratios to define limits and mitigate risks. These treasury policies, spanning multiple pages, guide Front Office teams in asset allocation to maintain the most efficient risk/return ratio possible. It is important to note that each bank has its own risk level, hence treasury policies and their respective limits may vary from one bank to another.

In general, a bank tends to favor a very low-risk level by prioritizing assets that can be quickly liquidated while limiting exposure to interest rate fluctuations or certain sectors. In the risk management process, liquidity and solvency ratios are monitored, as well as ratios related to interest rate risk and non-systematic risk.

Treasury Policy

These Treasury policies, spanning multiple pages, guide Front Office teams in asset allocation to maintain the most efficient risk/return ratio possible. It is important to note that each Bank possesses a risk level unique to itself, which is why Treasury Policies and their constituent limits may vary from one to another.

Thus, this document is divided into several limits and control ratios aimed at protecting against incurred risks. Among the main ratios present in the Treasury Policies, we find:

Liquidity and solvability ratios

Among liquidity and solvability ratios, controls are placed on the recovery time of securities held by the Treasury, with constraints notably regarding recoverable assets within 2 days and those recoverable within 30 days. Through these ratios, the average lifespan of the portfolio is controlled as well as the maximum duration of the securities, as well as the portion of assets placed with the Central Bank, ensuring a high rate of return in periods of high rates and near-immediate liquidity, as it is possible to recover from one day to the next.

These ratios aim to protect against the greatest risk a bank may face: that of illiquidity. This risk is heightened during crises and when clients wish to make massive withdrawals. The bank must thus ensure that all liquidity can be returned.

Security portfolio allocation’s ratios

Through these ratios, the Bank adheres to exposure limits by sector, industry, or company outlined in the Treasury policy: the leverage ratio is a significant indicator. This allows for diversification of allocations and investments and thus frees from specific risk. There are also control ratios based on Moody’s, S&P, and Fitch ratings or ESG ratings.

Finally, there are also ratios aimed at calculating the share represented by each asset class. It should be noted that each asset class represents what is called a “position” in the Treasury Sheet. In other words, each different class represents a different line. Among these lines are placements in the Money Market (Bond Portfolio, NEUCP Portfolio, placements in OPC funds), term interbank loans, currency and rate SWAPs, etc.

Sensitivity ratios

Through these ratios, the Treasury department controls the sensitivity to rates faced by Treasury assets. The Treasury Policy indicates threshold limits that should not be exceeded to ensure optimal rate adjustments, in the event of both increases and decreases.

Risk Management and Asset Allocation

Managing liquidity and solvability risk

To manage liquidity risk as effectively as possible, Private Banks can consider various strategies:

Purchase securities eligible for ECB refinancing
Maintain a high proportion of assets placed at the Central Bank on a daily basis (as they are highly liquid and yield interest at times of high interest rates).
Maintain a short maturity of the security portfolio and short-term deposits.

Interest-rate risk management

Interest-rate risk is a major issue for Private Banks, since a change in interest rates would have a major impact on the yield and price of bond holdings. The sensitivity of an asset represents the length of time during which it cannot be subjected to a variation in its interest rate. Thus, depending on the prevailing trend surrounding interest rate movements, Treasury Traders must invest to maintain a balanced sensitivity ratio. For example, in a scenario where the market strongly expects a future rate decrease, a strategy aimed at maximizing the adjustment period to the rate and thus the sensitivity ratio may be the best option. Conversely, in a scenario where the market anticipates a significant rate hike in the upcoming period, reducing the adjustment period to the rate for the portfolio would allow a quick re-indexing to a higher rate and reduce the time during which those assets would be “under-earning”.

Specific risk and diversification

A specific risk is linked to a particular event, affecting a single company, a sector of activity or a specific financial instrument. It differs from systemic risk, which affects the entire financial system. To reduce this risk, diversification is a key element, which is why a Private Bank can specify limits by sector or asset class in its Treasury Policy.

Therefore, the Treasury department of the Bank and its Front Office teams can allocate their assets to government bonds, as well as to corporate bonds in sectors such as retail, energy, or Real Estate.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the challenges of asset allocation within the Treasury of private banks are manifold. Guided by Treasury Policies, limits, and control ratios, it must adapt to the emergence of a new regulatory environment to define low-risk, high-liquidity investment strategies while addressing performance and revenue maximization objectives. Furthermore, proprietary asset allocation drives private banks to enhance their internal resources and develop tailored management tools.

Why should I be interested in this post?

If you’re interested in proprietary asset management, or in the workings of a treasury department within a private bank, you’ll find a first overview of these topics in this article.

If you have any questions about the position or the sector, please don’t hesitate to contact me on my personal Linkedin page, I’ll be delighted to answer them.

Useful resources

La Trésorerie active d’une entreprise

Banque-Trésorerie

Le Bilan d’une banque

Liquidité, solvabilité et crise bancaire : quelles relations ?

Diversification et gestion des risques

Les placements d’une Trésorerie d’entreprise

Le risque de taux

About the author

The article was written in March 2024 by Quentin CHUZET (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), 2019-2023).

My experience as Revenue Analyst at Olympique de Marseille

April 1, 2024 by Quentin CHUZET

My experience as Revenue Analyst at Olympique de Marseille

In this article, Quentin CHUZET (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), 2019-2023) shares his professional experience as Revenue Analyst at Olympique de Marseille.

About the company

Olympique de Marseille is a French football club founded in 1899. It is one of the most emblematic clubs in French and European football history, with an emblematic international reputation. Through decades of performance and media exposure, it has become an emblem of French sport, inscribing itself as a culture and tradition for millions of supporters around the world.

Logo of the Olympique de Marseille
Logo of Olympique de Marseille
Source: Olympique de Marseille.

Its takeover by the Mc Court Group in 2016 initiated a radical change in management and in the harmonization of processes, to continue to broaden its scope and enable grows bigger. Therefore, the club generates more than 200m € for the seasons 2021-2022 and 2022-2023 with 270m € of revenues expected for the season 2023-2024 It bases its growth on the sporting aspect but also on innovative sport business strategies. With a stadium capacity surpassing any of other Ligue 1 club (67.000 seats) and a meticulous ticketing strategy, the club is part of the Top 10 of the most attractive stadiums in Europe and continues to capitalize on its national and European reach.

OM Revenues vs other clubs.
OM Revenues vs others – Deloitte Report
Source: Deloitte Football Benchmark.

My apprenticeship

Joining Olympique de Marseille allowed me to discover and evolve within the soccer ecosystem, but also to take a practical approach to issues relating to football clubs revenues optimization and maximization.

The diversity of revenue sources at a club like Olympique de Marseille opens the door to a wide range of missions and tasks. As I was directly involved in all strategic aspects of revenue management : I was notably involved in defining the pricing of Ticketing & Hospitality (VIP) revenue streams, drawing up business plans for club projects, managing budgets and revenue targets set at the start of the season, analyzing financial opportunities represented by the entry of sponsors or investors, etc.

I therefore occupied a strategic role, acting as a pivot between the sales and finance teams, defining budgets alongside management control and that could be reachable for the commercial team, and while supporting the sales teams in achieving the latter by analyzing revenue opportunities and proposing strategic recommendations.

1/4 French Cup, season 2022-2023 : OM-Annecy. Historical record of attendance for a ¼ in the club’s and competition’s history.
Velodrome OM Annecy
Source: Olympique de Marseille.

My missions

Strategic recommendations and pricing

The main task assigned to a Revenue Analyst at Olympique de Marseille is to play an active role in defining pricing for the general public and VIPs at each match. To do this, I had to identify the exogenous variables of each match and quantify their impact in order to measure inbound demand as a function of a certain price level. Using historical data from similar matches and cross-referencing it with the maximization opportunities available at any given moment, I was responsible for drawing up the pricing and sales strategy (choosing best commercialization timing, best offer to address etc.) calculating forecast revenue trends and presenting my recommendations to management on several occasions. Thanks to our strategy the club reached the total of 1.550.000 attenders for a unique season and broke other records as the highest attendance ever known for one game (65.984 attendees vs PSG), the highest average attendance for one season (62.065 attendees), the highest number of sold-out games (23 over the season) and the highest attendance ever known for a French Cup game (63.929 attendees). Finally, the strategies leaded by the Revenue Management department leaded to a 4.8M € maximization of the total club revenues.

Participation in club project profitability studies

More generally, as a Revenue Analyst, I was involved in every aspect of the club’s revenue development.

Conducting pricing analysis and manage commercial strategy was part of the Ticketing & Hospitality revenue stream. However, my missions also involved providing my vision on certain high-stakes projects involving additional revenue generation. From the arrival of potential sponsors and investors to the launch of the new “Peuple Bleu&Blanc” loyalty program, I was responsible for measuring the profitability of these projects by calculating the potential income they could generate, while defining and steering a strategy for maximizing it.

Intermediary role between sales and finance teams

The role was multi-functional in terms of strategy, finance, and sales. We had to define ambitious, realistic budgets alongside management control, while supporting the sales teams in achieving them. To do this, we analyzed revenue opportunities and proposed appropriate strategic recommendations for the Ticketing, Hospitality, Retail, Membership and other revenue streams.

Development of steering tools and reporting dashboards

As the analysis are based almost entirely on the measurement of KPIs (Key Performance Indicators), the development of management tools represented a major challenge. So, it was up to me to play an active part, working with the IT (Information Technology) and back-office teams.

Required skills and knowledge

In my role at Olympique de Marseille, it is crucial to understand the financial and commercial issues facing the club and its teams. It’s also important to develop a strategic way of thinking in which everything can be optimized.

As a Revenue Analyst, every recommendation needs to be backed up by data, and every opportunity must be quantified to support each recommendations. That’s why you need to have an excellent mind for analyzing and interpreting data.

Furthermore, the numerous presentations and reports to management require solid written and oral communication skills (PowerPoint presentations, e-mail reports, etc.), as well as adaptability to the person you’re talking to, in order to make the right points and get your recommendations accepted.

In addition, mastery of Excel and the budgeting/revenue forecasting process is key to this position. As each decision has a significant impact on the season’s revenues, numerous budget forecasts are required, particularly around Best/Mid/Worst scenarios. It is also necessary to master the Power BI tool (Business Intelligence by Microsoft) to be able to develop and interpretate every KPI.

Finally, it is essential to be humble and questioning in order to identify areas for improvement in each strategy, and to meet management’s requirements on an ongoing basis and know how to identify the best practices of these recommendations.

OM revenues details for the 2022/2023 season.
OM Revenues - Deloitte Report
Source : Deloitte Report

Financial concepts related to my apprenticeship

Budget Management

Budget management is a key concept in this position, influencing the decisions of sales teams and having a major impact on every strategy implemented. Budget management represents a guideline for costs and revenues, and in particular the preparation of a forecast budget which serves as a basis for input management.

Revenue Management

Revenue Management is a key concept which consists of defining variables considered to have an impact on maximizing revenues in periods of growth and limiting losses in periods of decline. For a club such as Olympique de Marseille, this means capitalizing on positive trends (good sporting dynamics, special matches, etc.) and protecting revenues when the sportive situation is non-favorable : succession of bad games, bad weather on matchday, non-attractive game due to opponent.

Business Plans and Financial modeling

Studying the profitability of projects and simulating the impact of commercial strategies involves drawing up business plans and financial models in order to calculate forecast revenues. To do this, we need to establish different scenarios adapted to different contexts and KPIS and then take into account the action and development plans for these projects, as well as the business models used.

Why should I be interested in this post?

If you’re interested in the field of Finance and Strategy, particularly within a soccer club, then this article will give you a clearer picture of the tasks and skills required, as well as the importance of Revenue Management within a sporting institution. Through this empowering experience, I was able to develop both the hard skills that will serve me well in my future career in Finance, and the soft skills that will enable me to perform in a demanding, high-pressure environment.

If you have any questions about the position or the sector, please don’t hesitate to contact me on my personal Linkedin page, I’ll be delighted to answer them.

Useful resources

Official OM website

Deloitte reporting : Football Money League 2024 edition

Official French Football League website : All DNCG report until 2021-2022 season

Example of a Football club balance sheet : SC Bastia (French 1st division) during the 2015-2016 season

About the author

The article was written in March 2024 by Quentin CHUZET (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), 2019-2023).

Mille quatre cent milliards de dollars

June 30, 2025March 28, 2024 by Jean-Marie CHOFFRAY

Dans cet article, Jean-Marie CHOFFRAY (Professeur Ordinaire Honoraire d’Informatique Décisionnelle à l’Université de Liège, PhD-77, Management Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology) introduit son recent article “Mille quatre cent milliards de dollars”.

L’événement fondateur du XXe siècle est la première guerre mondiale, conséquence de rivalités politiques et économiques entre les puissances de l’Alliance et celles de l’Entente. Dix millions de civils et de militaires meurent. Vingt millions sont blessés. Mais, pour la première fois, une institution internationale est créée dans le but de régler les différends internationaux : la Société des Nations (SDN).

L’événement fondateur du XXIe siècle pourrait être la production en 2009 du premier bloc de transactions du réseau Bitcoin et, accessoirement, l’échange du premier bitcoin. Aucun mort. Aucun blessé. Mais, pour la première fois, un réseau informatique décentralisé permet d’enregistrer irréversiblement et de certifier irrévocablement tous types de transactions entre des intervenants souhaitant garder l’anonymat. En termes simples, un bitcoin est une copie numérique exploitable – i.e. conservable et échangeable – d’une série (chaîne) complète et indestructible de transactions sécurisées. Leur nombre est exponentiellement limité dans le temps (le dernier exemplaire sera produit vers 2140) et dans l’espace (vingt et un millions au total). Le réseau Bitcoin est en quelque sorte la « Banque Centrale » d’un écosystème numérique multipolaire dont seuls les utilisateurs contrôlent le devenir. Personne ne peut prévoir la diversité des applications que cette technologie autorise, ni les transformations qu’entrainera sa diffusion dans les secteurs où la fiabilité et la validité de l’information et des connaissances sont essentielles. Sa capitalisation boursière le rendrait-elle indestructible ? Pour un investisseur averti : ignorer Bitcoin, c’est se tirer une balle dans le pied… Et, tout miser sur Bitcoin, c’est se tirer une balle dans la tête !

▶ Lire l’article Mille quatre cent milliards de dollars

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A propos de l’auteur

L’article a été rédigé en mars 2024 par Jean-Marie CHOFFRAY (Professeur Ordinaire Honoraire d’Informatique Décisionnelle à l’Université de Liège, PhD-77, Management Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology).

Venture Capital 101: A Quick Overview

March 31, 2024March 27, 2024 by Alessandro MARRAS

Venture Capital 101: A Quick Overview

In this article, Alessandro MARRAS (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), Exchange Semester, September 2023-December 2023) gives a quick overview of Venture Capital.

What is Venture Capital?

Venture capital (VC) is a specialized form of financing where investors provide funds to startup or early-stage companies with high growth potential. This funding is crucial for startups to develop and expand their business operations. Venture capitalists not only provide financial support but also offer expertise and guidance to help these companies succeed. The goal of venture capital is to generate significant returns by investing in innovative businesses that have the potential to disrupt markets and achieve substantial growth.

VCs have five main functions:

They serve as financial intermediaries, channeling capital from investors into promising portfolio companies.
Their investments are directed towards private companies, making them illiquid assets.
VCs actively participate in the management and oversight of their portfolio companies, embodying active investors.
The primary objective of VCs is to maximize financial returns, typically through strategic exits like acquisitions or IPOs.
VCs prioritize investments in entrepreneurial ventures with substantial growth potential, aiming to foster internal growth and increase the likelihood of successful exits. These characteristics highlight the dynamic and strategic nature of venture capital investments, contributing to innovation and economic growth.

VCs vs others:

VCs differ from angel investors as they function as financial intermediaries rather than investing personal funds directly.
Unlike mutual or hedge funds, VCs invest specifically in private companies, placing them within the category of private equity and alternative investments.
While all VCs are private equity funds, the inverse isn’t true; not all private equity funds engage in venture capital.
VCs set themselves apart from crowdfunding platforms by actively participating in the companies they invest in, providing ongoing monitoring and management support.

How are VCs organized?

Venture capital firms are typically organized as limited partnerships, structured to facilitate investment activities while providing a degree of protection and incentive for both investors and managers. For investors this protection comes in the form of limited liability, meaning their risk of losing money is confined to their investment amount and they are not personally liable for the debts of the business. This allows them to invest in high-risk ventures with a capped downside. For managers the incentive is often structured as carried interest, a share of the profits of the investments, which aligns their financial interests with the success of the firm’s investments. This ensures that managers are motivated to select and nurture companies that will yield high returns, thereby directly linking their compensation to their performance in managing the venture capital firm’s portfolio.

Limited partnerships in venture capital consist of two main categories of partners. Firstly, there are limited partners, who contribute capital to the fund and bear limited liability. These investors can include wealthy individuals, banks, mutual funds, and other institutional investors. Secondly, there is the general partner, responsible for managing the fund’s operations and investments, and who assumes unlimited liability. Figures like Don Valentine, Ben Horowitz, and Peter Thiel are examples of notable general partners in the venture capital industry.

The lifespan of a typical limited partnership in venture capital is around ten years, during which investors’ capital is committed and cannot be withdrawn. General partners receive compensation in the form of a management fee and a share of the profits generated by successful investments, known as carried interest.

Limited partnerships offer tax efficiency, as they are not subject to corporate taxes, with partners instead paying taxes on their share of the profits. Additionally, distributions of securities to partners incur no immediate tax implications, with taxes only due upon the eventual sale of the securities.

This organizational structure provides a framework that incentivizes efficient investment management and aligns the interests of both limited and general partners in achieving successful outcomes.

Benefits of VC

Venture capital offers a range of benefits to both entrepreneurs and investors, fostering innovation, driving economic growth, and facilitating wealth creation. Firstly, venture capital provides crucial funding to startups and early-stage companies that may otherwise struggle to secure financing from traditional sources such as banks or public markets. This injection of capital enables entrepreneurs to pursue ambitious ideas and develop groundbreaking technologies, driving innovation across various industries. Moreover, venture capitalists often bring valuable expertise, networks, and mentorship to the table, helping startups navigate challenges, refine their business strategies, and accelerate their growth trajectory.

Secondly, venture capital plays a pivotal role in job creation and economic development. By supporting high-growth startups, venture capital investments fuel job creation, as these companies expand their operations, hire new talent, and contribute to local economies. Additionally, successful startups can spawn entire ecosystems of suppliers, service providers, and complementary businesses, further stimulating economic activity and driving regional prosperity.

Furthermore, venture capital investment offers attractive returns for investors willing to accept the inherent risks associated with early-stage ventures. While venture capital investments carry a higher risk of failure compared to traditional investments, they also offer the potential for substantial returns on successful exits, such as acquisitions or initial public offerings (IPOs). As a result, venture capital serves as a vital asset class for investors seeking diversification and opportunities for outsized returns in their investment portfolios.

VC Financing Cycle

The Venture Capital Financing Cycle delineates the sequential stages of funding that startups typically undergo, from inception to exit. This cycle starts with the Seed Stage, where initial capital is raised to prove concepts and build prototypes. As the startup matures, it may progress through various rounds of funding—Angel, Series A, Series B, and beyond—each designed to fuel growth, product development, market expansion, and operational scaling. The Bridge stage serves as a critical juncture for preparing more mature startups for substantial future rounds or positioning for exit strategies. The cycle culminates in the Pre-IPO and IPO Preparation stages, where companies ready themselves for public offering or seek acquisition opportunities, marking the exit phase. This framework not only structures the investment landscape but also maps the growth trajectory of startups. The VC financing cycle is emblematic of the symbiotic relationship between investors seeking to maximize returns and startups in need of capital to fuel their growth ambitions, fostering innovation and economic development within the broader ecosystem.

VCs financial performance in 2023

In 2023, the venture capital (VC) market experienced significant shifts, reflecting broader economic challenges and evolving investment trends. The year saw a considerable downturn in VC investments, dropping to the lowest levels in four years, with a year-over-year decrease of 35% from the already declining levels of 2022. The total amount raised by VC-backed startups barely surpassed $140 billion, influenced notably by a few mega-deals in the artificial intelligence (AI) sector. The decline was not just in the amount raised but also in deal volume across nearly all fund classes, reaching the lowest point in a decade. Later-stage investments saw the most significant reduction in dollar volume quarter-over-quarter, while Series A investments showed some resilience with a 9% increase.

The backdrop of economic headwinds, valuation concerns, and an overhang of more than 50,000 existing VC-backed startups created a challenging environment for new investments. VC fund formation also experienced a sharp decline, dropping 62% from the record year in 2022, although there was a slight uptick in the last quarter of the year. This situation has led to increased caution among venture capitalists, with a notable reluctance to engage in mega-round financing. Only 50 mega deals were recorded in the last quarter of 2023, marking the lowest total since 2017.

Despite these challenges, AI continued to garner significant attention and investment, driving many of the largest deals in the U.S. during the last quarter of 2023. This trend suggests that while the overall VC investment has declined, specific sectors, particularly those related to technological innovation and AI, continue to attract substantial interest and funding.

Why should I be interested in this post?

As an ESSEC students interested in finance, this post can be a useful resource due to its relevance in the financial sector. Understanding venture capital offers insights into alternative investments, career opportunities in private equity, and the dynamics of financing innovative startups, enriching your knowledge and potential career paths within the finance industry.

Useful resources

Zider B. (1998) How Venture Capital Works Harvard Business Review.

Jeffrey Grabow (29/01/2024) Will venture capital market rebound in 2024 or seek new floor? EY

KPMG Venture Pulse Q4 2023

Deloitte 2024 trends in venture capital

About the author

The article was written in March 2024 by Alessandro MARRAS (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), Exchange Semester, September 2023-December 2023).

Top 5 Private Equity firms

March 27, 2024 by Alessandro MARRAS

Top 5 Private Equity firms

In this article, Alessandro MARRAS (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), Exchange Semester, September 2023-December 2023) presents the top 5 Private Equity firms globally.

Introduction

In the dynamic landscape of finance, private equity firms wield significant influence driving innovation, growth, and value creation. These firms are renowned for their strategic investments and operational expertise, generating substantial returns for investors. In this post, we embark on a journey to uncover the top 5 Private Equity firms globally guided by specific metrics that underscore their reputation and success.

Methodology

To define the top 5 global Private Equity firms, we developed a methodology rooted in a detailed selection process and comprehensive data analysis. Given the vast landscape of private equity firms, our first step was to narrow down our focus by seeking rankings from reputable independent research institutes, such as Private Equity International and Forbes. These rankings served as a benchmark, helping us identify firms that consistently garnered recognition for their excellence within the industry.

From these rankings, we selected firms that appeared most frequently in the top 5, ensuring that our pool consisted of widely acknowledged and respected entities. This approach enabled us to narrow down our analysis to a manageable number of firms, facilitating a more in-depth assessment of their performance and standing.

With our selection criteria in place, we turned to publicly listed firms, as their annual reports provide accessible data crucial for our analysis. It is important to understand that being publicly listed means that the private equity firm is listed on stock exchanges, and anyone can buy shares in the company. However, this is a big difference from investing in private equity funds, where the capital raised is used to buy portfolio companies.

From this we obtained the 5 firms to rank:

Blackstone Inc.
KKR & Co Inc.
The Carlyle Group Inc.
Apollo Global Management, Inc.
TPG Inc.

To rank these firms, we will be guided by essential measurement metrics that illuminate their standing and impact within the industry. Our evaluation method hinges on key indicators, including Assets Under Management (AUM), fundraising totals, and performance metrics such as gross returns. From an investor’s perspective, this comprehensive approach ensures a deep understanding of each firm’s financial health, strategic positioning, and potential for generating future returns, allowing for informed decision-making in investment opportunities.

Let’s have a more in depth look at the metrics (criterion) used:

Fundraising Totals Over the Last 5 Years. This metric provides insight into each firm’s ability to attract capital from investors over an extended period, reflecting investor confidence and the firm’s fundraising track record.

Total Private Equity AUM (in 2023). Total AUM for the private equity segment in 2023 serves as a measure of the firm’s scale and market presence within the private equity industry.

Private Equity Portfolio Returns (gross returns 2023). This metric represents the firm’s performance in generating returns from its investments in corporate private equity, providing a measure of investment effectiveness and value creation.

For each criterion, we will assign ranks to each firm based on their performance relative to others, with 1 being the highest rank and 5 being the lowest. We will then calculate the average score for each company and rank them accordingly. Each criterion weights the same.

Blackstone

Logo of Blackstone.

Source: the company.

Fundraising Totals: 126bn$

AUM: 304bn$

Gross returns: 12.1%

KKR

Logo of KKR.

Source: the company.

Fundraising Totals: 104bn$

AUM: 176bn$

Gross returns: 16%

The Carlyle Group (CG)

Logo of the Carlyle.
Logo of Carlyle
Source: the company.

Fundraising Totals: 70bn$

AUM: 161bn$

Gross returns: 5%

Apollo Global Management.

Logo of Apollo Global Management.

Source: the company.

Fundraising Totals: 23bn$

AUM: 75.9bn$

Gross returns: 10.2%

TPG

Logo of TPG.

Source: the company.

Fundraising Totals: 55bn$

AUM: 97.8bn$

Gross returns: 14.1%

Conclusion

Once we consider all these elements, here are the ranks we obtain for each criterion and their average for each firm:

Therefore, our final ranking for the top 5 Private Equity firms globally in 2023 is:

Blackstone
KKR
TPG
The Carlyle Group
Apollo Global Management

Note: Blackstone is ranked first in more criteria/metrics compared to KKR, demonstrating superior performance across multiple dimensions, and affirming its position as the top-performing firm in the final ranking.

Why should I be interested in this post?

As an ESSEC student enrolled in the SimTrade course, delving into the realm of Private Equity could be of great interest to you. This post serves as an insightful exploration into the industry’s key players, offering valuable insights into their distinctive characteristics. It presents an opportunity to deepen your understanding of the sector and potentially discover your future employer among these influential firms.

Useful resources

Private Equity International

Forbes Top 10 U.S. Private Equity Firms Of March 2024

TPG Inc.

The Carlyle Group Inc.

KKR & Co Inc.

Apollo Global Management, Inc.

Blackstone Inc.

About the author

The article was written in March 2024 by Alessandro MARRAS (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), Exchange Semester, September 2023-December 2023).

My professional experience as a financial and accounting assistant at Professional Services

March 27, 2024 by Alessandro MARRAS

My professional experience as a financial and accounting assistant at Professional Services

In this article, Alessandro MARRAS (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), Exchange Semester, September 2023-December 2023) shares his professional experience as a financial and accounting assistant at Professional Services.

About the company

Professional Services was founded in 1986 by a team of professionals (lawyers, chartered accountants, and labor consultants), with the aim of providing services to businesses in the accounting, labor, administrative, tax, and corporate sectors. The mission is to offer entrepreneurs an integrated package of services capable of stimulating organizational transformations and facilitating the achievement of adequate levels of competitiveness. The target audience addressed by the Group primarily consists of Italian and foreign companies operating in the service sector and tertiary industries in general, as well as industrial, commercial, transportation, etc. With over thirty years of experience in the sector and an average annual group turnover of approximately €2,000,000, Professional Services can guarantee their clients the highest level of professionalism.

Logo of Professional Services.

Source: Professional Services.

As an assistant, I was part of the financial and accounting advisory department of Professional Services. In this department we were entrusted with critical responsibilities spanning the processing of accounting data and the provision of essential accounting and administrative services. The department served as the backbone of the organization, providing essential support across a spectrum of financial activities. We were responsible for maintaining accurate and up-to-date accounting records, ensuring the integrity of financial information. Moreover, we undertook the crucial task of preparing and analyzing financial statements, offering insights vital for informed decision-making. Additionally, the team managed various accounting and administrative services, including the maintenance of corporate books, providing corporate assistance, and overseeing the intricate landscape of taxation, encompassing value-added tax (VAT), personal income tax, corporate income tax, and regional tax on productive activities.

My internship

I had a 3-month internship at Professional Services as a financial and accounting assistant in 2023.

My missions

Over the course of these three months, my mission was to prepare and analyze the financial statements for our clients. I ensured that these statements were accurate and complied with relevant accounting standards, providing reliable insights for decision-making. This involved meticulously reviewing balance sheets, income statements, and cash flow statements for the given clients and reporting how these statements were in comparison to industry benchmarks. Moreover, I contributed to the maintenance of clients’ accounting records, assisting in the establishment of a comprehensive and organized financial record-keeping system. I did this through a software called Profis which helped by facilitating the compilation of balance sheets and declarations and performing tax simulations. Additionally, I handled various tasks related to invoicing, ensuring accurate processing and organization to facilitate smooth financial transactions for our clients. By fulfilling these responsibilities diligently, I aimed to support our clients in maintaining financial integrity, facilitating informed business decisions, and providing excellent service overall.

Required skills and knowledge

During this internship, I sharpened a combination of soft and hard skills that were indispensable for my position. Soft skills, such as effective communication, were essential. The ability to convey complex financial information clearly and succinctly to colleagues was crucial. Additionally, strong interpersonal skills facilitated collaboration within the team and ensured smooth workflow.

Attention to detail emerged as a critical soft skill, particularly when working with financial data and reports. The ability to meticulously analyze information and identify discrepancies was crucial for maintaining accuracy and reliability. Furthermore, time management skills were invaluable, as I often juggled various tasks and deadlines while prioritizing workload effectively.

On the hard skills front, proficiency in accounting principles and practices was fundamental. This included a thorough understanding of IFRS accounting regulations and principles, coupled with experience in financial statement preparation and analysis. Additionally, familiarity in applications such as a spreadsheet like Excel and an accounting software like Profis was essential. Mastery of Excel allowed me to manipulate and analyze financial data efficiently, while knowhow in Profis facilitated specific accounting operations and analyses required for the firm’s services.

Adaptability was also key, given the dynamic nature of the internship environment. The ability to quickly learn and adapt to new software and procedures ensured that I could contribute effectively to the team’s objectives. Overall, the combination of soft and hard skills enabled me to excel in my internship at Professional Services, providing me with invaluable experience and preparing me for future challenges in the field of finance and accounting.

What I learned

In terms of knowledge, I learned a multitude of valuable lessons that have significantly contributed to my professional growth and development. Firstly, I gained hands-on experience in financial statement preparation and analysis, improving my skills in interpreting financial data and drawing meaningful insights to support decision-making processes. Through my work. An integral part of this experience was learning to meticulously review and reconcile accounts to ensure accuracy in financial reporting. By identifying and correcting discrepancies between the general ledger and subsidiary accounts, I helped maintain the integrity of financial statements. Additionally, I deepened my understanding of IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards) accounting principles and regulations, which are crucial for ensuring transparency, accountability, and comparability of financial statements. By familiarizing myself with these principles, I was able to assist in preparing financial statements that met regulatory requirements, enhancing the credibility and reliability of our clients’ financial information.

Moreover, working with software applications such as Excel and Profis expanded my technical proficiency, allowing me to efficiently manipulate and analyze financial data. This experience has enhanced my ability to leverage technology to streamline processes and improve productivity in the workplace.

On a broader level, my internship at Professional Services provided me with invaluable exposure to the dynamics of the finance and accounting industry, in the sense that I gained insight into the day-to-day operations of a consultancy firm, including client interactions, and the importance of maintaining accuracy and integrity in financial reporting.

Furthermore, collaborating with colleagues from diverse backgrounds, such as with different experiences, educational backgrounds and different areas of expertise, has improved my communication and teamwork skills, fostering an appreciation for the importance of effective collaboration in achieving organizational goals.

Overall, my internship experience at Professional Services has equipped me with a comprehensive skill set, valuable insights, and a deeper understanding of the finance and accounting profession, laying a strong foundation for my future career aspirations.

Financial concepts related my internship

Financial Statement Analysis

Financial statement analysis involves evaluating a company’s financial performance and position by examining its income statement, balance sheet, and cash flow statement. In my role, I actively participated in the preparation and analysis of financial statements for clients, ensuring accuracy and compliance with accounting standards.

Financial Reporting Standards

Financial reporting standards refer to a set of guidelines and rules established by regulatory bodies or standard-setting organizations to govern the preparation and presentation of financial statements. These standards aim to ensure consistency, transparency, and comparability in financial reporting across different organizations and industries. In my role, I applied financial reporting standards to prepare and review clients’ financial statements and records, ensuring accuracy and transparency in reporting.

Taxation

Taxation includes corporate income tax, applied to business profits, and value-added tax (VAT), imposed on goods and services at each stage of production. Corporate income tax understanding involves knowledge of tax laws, deductions, and applicable rates. Similarly, understanding VAT requires knowledge of registration, taxable transactions, and applicable rates. Even though I was not directly involved, the team was responsible in accounting for VAT and corporate income tax for clients, ensuring compliance with relevant regulations.

Why should I be interested in this post?

An ESSEC student aspiring to pursue a career in finance would find my experience at Professional Services particularly compelling. By sharing my experience as a financial and accounting assistant, I aim to offer fellow ESSEC students a glimpse into the practical application of finance concepts in a professional setting, inspiring and informing their own career aspirations in the field.

Useful resources

Professional Services

About the author

The article was written in March 2024 by Alessandro MARRAS (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), Exchange Semester, September 2023-December 2023).

Tether: Unraveling the Impact of the Stablecoin on Modern Finance

May 20, 2024March 25, 2024 by Snehasish CHINARA

In this article, Snehasish CHINARA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2022-2024) explains the cryptocurrency Tether.

Historical context and background

Tether (USDT) emerged in July 2014 as a groundbreaking cryptocurrency designed to bridge the gap between traditional fiat currencies and the digital realm. Conceived by Brock Pierce, Craig Sellars, and Reeve Collins, Tether aimed to offer a stable alternative to the price volatility commonly associated with other cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin. Functioning as a stablecoin, Tether is pegged to the value of a fiat currency, primarily the US Dollar, maintaining a 1:1 ratio. This pegging mechanism provides a degree of price stability, making Tether an attractive option for traders and investors seeking to mitigate the risks inherent in the crypto market. Since its inception, Tether has grown to become one of the most widely used cryptocurrencies, playing a pivotal role in facilitating liquidity and serving as a gateway for funds within the broader digital asset ecosystem. Despite its popularity, Tether has faced scrutiny regarding its transparency and reserve backing, adding layers of complexity to its intriguing history within the crypto landscape.

Tether Logo

Source: Yahoo! Finance

Figure 1. Key Dates in Tether History

Source: Yahoo! Finance

Key features

Stability: Tether is designed to maintain a 1:1 peg with a fiat currency, typically the US Dollar. This pegging mechanism provides stability in value, reducing the volatility commonly associated with other cryptocurrencies.

Widespread Adoption: Tether is widely adopted across various cryptocurrency exchanges and platforms. Its broad acceptance makes it a popular choice for traders and investors.

Liquidity Provider: Tether serves as a crucial source of liquidity within the cryptocurrency market. Traders often use USDT as a safe haven during times of market turbulence.

Fast Transactions: Tether transactions are conducted on blockchain networks like Ethereum and Tron, enabling fast and efficient cross-border transactions compared to traditional banking systems.

Global Accessibility: Tether provides a borderless financial solution, allowing users to send and receive funds globally without the need for traditional banking intermediaries.

Smart Contract Compatibility: Tether is compatible with blockchain-based smart contracts, enabling developers to integrate it into decentralized applications (DApps) for various financial services.

Use cases

Trading Pairs: Tether is extensively used as a trading pair on cryptocurrency exchanges. It allows traders to quickly move in and out of positions while avoiding the market volatility associated with other digital assets.

Hedging: Investors often use Tether as a hedging tool to safeguard their portfolios against market fluctuations. By converting their holdings to USDT during uncertain times, investors can protect their capital.

Remittances: Tether facilitates cross-border remittances, offering a faster and potentially more cost-effective alternative to traditional money transfer services.

Stable Value Storage: Tether serves as a stable store of value, allowing users to preserve their wealth in a cryptocurrency that is less prone to price fluctuations compared to other volatile digital assets.

Decentralized Finance (DeFi): Tether is a common stablecoin used in decentralized finance protocols for lending, borrowing, and yield farming activities within the growing DeFi ecosystem.

Tokenized Assets: Tether is utilized to represent traditional assets in tokenized form on blockchain platforms, enabling fractional ownership and increased liquidity for real-world assets.

Controversy

While Tether has gained popularity for its stability and utility, it has also faced criticism and regulatory scrutiny, particularly regarding its reserve backing and transparency. The paper “Is Bitcoin Really Untethered?”, analyses Tether’s controversies revealing that the significant growth of Tether, the largest pegged cryptocurrency, may not solely be driven by organic investor demand but also by a scheme to artificially inflate cryptocurrency prices. By analyzing the blockchains of Bitcoin and Tether, the researchers found evidence suggesting that a major player on Bitfinex utilizes Tether to purchase large amounts of Bitcoin during price downturns, effectively supporting Bitcoin prices. This intervention is particularly pronounced near round-number price thresholds, indicating a strategic approach to price support. The data also suggests that Tether issuance correlates with a month-end need for dollar reserves, implying partial reserve backing. Overall, these findings lend support to the hypothesis that Tether’s growth is supply-driven and potentially manipulative.

Furthermore, the paper highlights the broader implications of these findings, suggesting that price manipulation in cryptocurrencies can have significant distortive effects beyond standard supply-and-demand dynamics. It highlights the need for external surveillance, monitoring, and regulatory frameworks in the cryptocurrency space, challenging the notion that innovative technologies alone can bypass the need for traditional oversight. The conclusion suggests that while cryptocurrencies offer new possibilities for financial innovation, they are not immune to the risks associated with dubious activities and speculative bubbles, which could ultimately lead to further price distortions and negative impacts on the market.

Technology and underlying blockchain

Tether (USDT), a the stablecoin, utilizes blockchain technology across various networks to provide a digital asset pegged to traditional fiat currencies. The Ethereum-based ERC-20 version is the most prevalent, benefiting from Ethereum’s widespread adoption and smart contract capabilities, making it a cornerstone for decentralized exchanges and DeFi applications. Tether also operates on the Tron blockchain (TRC-20), offering faster transactions and reduced fees, particularly appealing for high-frequency trading. Acknowledging the demand for scalability and cost-effectiveness, Tether has expanded to alternative blockchains like Binance Smart Chain and Solana. These adaptations highlight Tether’s commitment to meeting diverse market needs. Managed by Tether Limited, the stablecoin asserts stability through regular audits and claims of holding equivalent fiat reserves, although controversies have arisen regarding transparency. The dynamic interplay of Tether across various blockchains underscores its pivotal role in the evolving landscape of digital finance.

Supply of coins

The market supply of Tether (USDT), a leading stablecoin, plays a crucial role in the broader cryptocurrency ecosystem. Tether’s supply dynamics are intrinsically linked to its unique issuance mechanism. Tether Limited, the company behind USDT, mints new tokens by receiving equivalent amounts of fiat currency, primarily the US Dollar, in its reserves. This issuance process is supposed to ensure a 1:1 peg between USDT and the underlying fiat currency, promoting price stability.

The market supply of Tether expands as demand for the stablecoin increases. Traders and investors often turn to USDT as a safe haven during times of high volatility, effectively increasing the circulating supply. This heightened demand results in additional Tether being issued to maintain the peg, thus influencing the overall supply in the market.

Monitoring Tether’s supply is of particular interest due to its significant impact on liquidity within the cryptocurrency space. An influx of USDT into the market provides traders with a reliable means to navigate price fluctuations without fully exiting the crypto market, enhancing liquidity and potentially mitigating market volatility.

Historical data for Tether

How to get the data?

The Tether is popular cryptocurrency on the market, and historical data for the Tether such as prices and volume traded can be easily downloaded from the internet sources such as Yahoo! Finance, Blockchain.com & CoinMarketCap. For example, you can download data for Tether on Yahoo! Finance (the Yahoo! code for Tether is USDT-USD).

Figure 1. Tether data

Source: Yahoo! Finance.

Historical data for the Tether market prices

Exploring the historical market price of Tether (USDT) unveils a wealth of insights into the cryptocurrency’s role and its impact on the broader market. The stability of Tether, designed to maintain a 1:1 peg with traditional fiat currencies, is reflected in its price history. Observing deviations from this peg over time provides a gauge of Tether’s effectiveness as a stablecoin. Moreover, fluctuations in Tether’s historical price serve as a barometer for market sentiment, indicating periods of increased demand for stability during cryptocurrency market volatility. Tether’s price movements also offer a lens into liquidity trends, showcasing its role in various financial activities within the crypto ecosystem. Crucially, analyzing Tether’s historical price can illuminate market responses to controversies, regulatory developments, and its correlation with other major cryptocurrencies. Understanding these dynamics is essential for investors and traders seeking to navigate the intricate landscape of digital assets and stablecoins.

Figure 2 below represents the evolution of the price of Tether in US dollar over the period Nov 2017 – Dec 2023. The price corresponds to the “closing” price (observed at 10:00 PM CET at the end of the month).

Figure 2. Evolution of the Tether price

Source: Yahoo! Finance.

R program

The R program below written by Shengyu ZHENG allows you to download the data from Yahoo! Finance website and to compute summary statistics and risk measures about the Ethereum.

Data file

The R program that you can download above allows you to download the data for the Ethereum from the Yahoo! Finance website. The database starts on December, 2017.

Table 1 below represents the top of the data file for the Ethereum downloaded from the Yahoo! Finance website with the R program.

Table 1. Top of the data file for the Tether

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Python code

You can download the Python code used to download the data from Yahoo! Finance.

Python script to download Ethereum historical data and save it to an Excel sheet::

import yfinance as yf

import pandas as pd

# Define the ticker symbol for Tether

eth_ticker = “USDT-USD”

# Define the date range for historical data

start_date = “2020-01-01”

end_date = “2022-01-01”

# Download historical data using yfinance

usdt_data = yf.download(eth_ticker, start=start_date, end=end_date)

# Create a Pandas DataFrame from the downloaded data

usdt_df = pd.DataFrame(usdt_data)

# Define the Excel file path

excel_file_path = “tether_historical_data.xlsx”

# Save the data to an Excel sheet

usdt_df.to_excel(excel_file_path, sheet_name=”USDT Historical Data”)

print(f”Data saved to {excel_file_path}”)

# Make sure you have the required libraries installed and adjust the “start_date” and “end_date” variables to the desired date range for the historical data you want to download.

Evolution of the Tether

Figure 3 below gives the evolution of the Tether on a daily basis.

Figure 3. Evolution of the Tether.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Figure 4 below gives the evolution of the Tether returns from November 09, 2017 to December 31, 2022 on a daily basis.

Figure 4. Evolution of the Tether returns.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Summary statistics for the Ethereum

The R program that you can download above also allows you to compute summary statistics about the returns of the Tether.

Table 4 below presents the following summary statistics estimated for the Ethereum:

The mean

The standard deviation (the squared root of the variance)

The skewness

The kurtosis.

The mean, the standard deviation / variance, the skewness, and the kurtosis refer to the first, second, third and fourth moments of statistical distribution of returns respectively.

Table 2. Summary statistics for Tether.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Statistical distribution of the Tether returns

Historical distribution

Figure 5 represents the historical distribution of the Tether daily returns for the period from November 09, 2017 to December 31, 2022.

Figure 5. Historical Tether distribution of the returns.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Gaussian distribution

Figure 6 below represents the Gaussian distribution of the Tether daily returns with parameters estimated over the period from November 09, 2017 to December 31, 2022.

Figure 6. Gaussian distribution of the Tether returns.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Risk measures of the Tether returns

The R program that you can download above also allows you to compute risk measures about the returns of the tether.

Table 3 below presents the following risk measures estimated for the Ethereum:

The long-term volatility (the unconditional standard deviation estimated over the entire period)

The short-term volatility (the standard deviation estimated over the last three months)

The Value at Risk (VaR) for the left tail (the 5% quantile of the historical distribution)

The Value at Risk (VaR) for the right tail (the 95% quantile of the historical distribution)

The Expected Shortfall (ES) for the left tail (the average loss over the 5% quantile of the historical distribution)

The Expected Shortfall (ES) for the right tail (the average loss over the 95% quantile of the historical distribution)

The Stress Value (SV) for the left tail (the 1% quantile of the tail distribution estimated with a Generalized Pareto distribution)

The Stress Value (SV) for the right tail (the 99% quantile of the tail distribution estimated with a Generalized Pareto distribution)

Table 5. Risk measures for the Tether.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Why should I be interested in this post?

Tether is a compelling subject for students, especially those in finance, economics, business, and technology. Ripple’s focus on revolutionizing cross-border transactions and its unique blockchain technology offer insights into innovations in financial technology. Exploring Tether provides a deeper understanding of blockchain, cryptocurrency markets, stable coins, regulatory challenges, and the practical applications of decentralized systems. Students can gain valuable knowledge about market dynamics, investment opportunities, and the intersection of technology and finance by delving into the complexities of Tether and its impact on the financial industry.

Useful resources

Academic research about risk

Longin F. (2000) From VaR to stress testing: the extreme value approach Journal of Banking and Finance, N°24, pp 1097-1130.

Longin F. (2016) Extreme events in finance: a handbook of extreme value theory and its applications Wiley Editions.

Data

Yahoo! Finance

Yahoo! Finance Historical data for Tether

CoinMarketCap Historical data for Tether

About the author

The article was written in January 2024 by Snehasish CHINARA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2022-2024).

XRP: Pioneering Financial Revolution

May 20, 2024March 25, 2024 by Snehasish CHINARA

In this article, Snehasish CHINARA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2022-2024) explains the cryptocurrency XRP/Ripple.

Historical context and background

XRP, the digital currency associated with the Ripple network, emerged against the backdrop of a growing interest in blockchain technology and its potential applications beyond cryptocurrencies. The development of Ripple began in 2012 when Jed McCaleb, Chris Larsen, and Arthur Britto joined forces to create a decentralized digital currency system. Ripple Labs, the company behind XRP, aimed to address the inefficiencies in traditional cross-border payments by providing a fast and cost-effective alternative. Unlike Bitcoin, which relies on a proof-of-work consensus mechanism, Ripple utilizes a unique consensus algorithm called the Ripple Protocol Consensus Algorithm (RPCA). The XRP Ledger, the underlying technology, is designed to facilitate quick and secure transactions, making it particularly appealing for financial institutions. Over the years, Ripple has garnered both support and criticism within the crypto community due to its centralized nature and ongoing legal challenges. Nevertheless, its focus on facilitating seamless global transactions has positioned XRP as a significant player in the evolving landscape of digital assets.

XRP Logo

Source: Yahoo! Finance

Figure 1. Key Dates in XRP History

Source: Yahoo! Finance and other internet sources

Key features and use cases

Fast and Low-Cost Transactions: One of the primary features of XRP is its speed and cost-effectiveness. The XRP Ledger is capable of processing transactions in just a few seconds, making it significantly faster than traditional banking systems and some other cryptocurrencies. The low transaction fees associated with XRP contribute to its appeal for cross-border payments.

Liquidity and Scalability: XRP is designed to handle a high volume of transactions, providing liquidity for financial institutions. This scalability is crucial for the adoption of XRP in large-scale financial applications, including remittances and institutional transfers.

Interoperability: Ripple aims to facilitate interoperability between different financial systems. XRP can act as a bridge currency between fiat currencies, enabling seamless and efficient transactions across borders. This interoperability is particularly valuable in the context of global finance.

Decentralization with Unique Consensus Algorithm: While Ripple has faced criticism for some aspects of centralization, the XRP Ledger employs the Ripple Protocol Consensus Algorithm (RPCA) for transaction validation. This consensus mechanism is more energy-efficient compared to proof-of-work used by some other cryptocurrencies.

Partnerships with Financial Institutions: Ripple has formed partnerships with various financial institutions, including banks and payment service providers. The aim is to leverage XRP for real-time, cross-border payments, reducing settlement times and costs for these institutions.

Smart Contracts and Tokenization: Ripple has also explored adding smart contract functionality to the XRP Ledger, expanding its use cases beyond simple transactions. Additionally, the platform has the potential for tokenization of real-world assets, allowing for the representation of various assets on the blockchain.

Stability and Predictable Supply: XRP has a fixed supply of 100 billion tokens, with a portion held by Ripple Labs. This fixed supply aims to provide stability and predictability, which could be attractive for businesses and investors.

While XRP has faced regulatory challenges and debates about its decentralization, its unique features and focus on solving real-world financial issues position it as a cryptocurrency with substantial potential in the global financial landscape.

Technology and underlying blockchain

XRP, the cryptocurrency associated with the Ripple network, operates on a distinct technological framework, utilizing a consensus algorithm that sets it apart from traditional proof-of-work systems. At the heart of XRP’s technology is the XRP Ledger, a decentralized blockchain that enables fast and secure transactions. The unique consensus mechanism employed by Ripple is known as the Ripple Protocol Consensus Algorithm (RPCA). Unlike the energy-intensive mining processes seen in proof-of-work systems, RPCA operates on a consensus model that involves a network of independent validators reaching agreement on the order and validity of transactions. This consensus mechanism allows the XRP Ledger to achieve high throughput and swift confirmation times, making it well-suited for the efficient processing of cross-border payments and financial transactions. Additionally, the XRP Ledger supports the issuance of various tokens, potentially expanding its use cases beyond its native cryptocurrency. Despite debates about the decentralization of Ripple, the technology behind XRP continues to evolve, showcasing a commitment to addressing the challenges and opportunities in the rapidly evolving blockchain and cryptocurrency space. Additionally, the platform has explored the integration of smart contract functionality, opening possibilities for more complex and programmable transactions. The focus on scalability, interoperability, and speed positions XRP as a blockchain solution tailored for the demands of the global financial industry, particularly in the context of cross-border payments and remittances.

Supply of coins

The supply dynamics of XRP, the native cryptocurrency of the Ripple network, play a crucial role in shaping its market characteristics. Unlike Bitcoin, which relies on a mining process to gradually release new coins into circulation, XRP was created with its entire supply generated at inception. XRP has a fixed maximum supply of 100 billion coins, a feature that distinguishes it from some other cryptocurrencies with potentially infinite supplies. Notably, a substantial portion of the XRP supply is held by Ripple Labs, the company behind the cryptocurrency. Approximately 55 billion XRP are held in escrow by Ripple Labs, the company behind the development of the Ripple protocol. This escrow mechanism is designed to release a specific amount of XRP into circulation each month, reducing the potential for market manipulation and ensuring a predictable supply trajectory.

This allocation has been a point of discussion and scrutiny within the crypto community, with debates surrounding the potential impact of such centralization on the coin’s decentralization ethos. Ripple has taken steps to address concerns, implementing strategies such as the escrow system, which locks a large amount of XRP in time-released contracts to be gradually released into circulation. The controlled release aims to provide transparency and mitigate concerns related to sudden market influxes. The fixed supply, along with Ripple’s strategic initiatives, contributes to the stability and predictability of XRP in the market, influencing investor perceptions and shaping the overall market dynamics of the cryptocurrency.

Figure 2. Number of XRP Transaction per Day

Source: BitInfoCharts (Ethereum Transactions historical chart)

Historical data for XRP

How to get the data?

The XRP is popular cryptocurrency on the market, and historical data for the XRP such as prices and volume traded can be easily downloaded from the internet sources such as Yahoo! Finance, Blockchain.com & CoinMarketCap. For example, you can download data for XRP on Yahoo! Finance (the Yahoo! code for XRP is XRP-USD).

Figure 3. XRP data

Source: Yahoo! Finance

Historical data for the XRP market prices

Access to historical data on XRP, the cryptocurrency affiliated with Ripple, offers investors valuable insights and tools for decision-making. By analyzing past price trends and patterns, investors can better anticipate potential movements in XRP’s value, aiding in strategic buy or sell decisions. Historical data also serves as a record of XRP’s volatility, allowing investors to assess and manage risks effectively. Examining market sentiment during different periods provides a nuanced understanding of external factors that may impact XRP, such as regulatory developments or technological upgrades. Additionally, historical performance comparisons with other cryptocurrencies or traditional assets help investors evaluate XRP’s relative strength and potential for returns, informing optimal portfolio management. Event analysis around significant occurrences, such as partnerships or regulatory changes, assists in anticipating market reactions to future events. Furthermore, historical data aids in identifying market cycles, supporting investors in aligning their strategies with the prevailing market conditions. Recognizing key support and resistance levels based on historical prices enhances risk management by guiding entry and exit points. While historical data is a valuable tool, investors should blend it with current market analysis and fundamental factors for comprehensive decision-making, considering the inherent unpredictability of the cryptocurrency market.

Figure 4 below represents the evolution of the price of XRP in US dollar over the period Nov 2017 – Dec 2023. The price corresponds to the “closing” price (observed at 10:00 PM CET at the end of the month).

Figure 4. Evolution of the XRP price

Source: Yahoo! Finance

R program

The R program below written by Shengyu ZHENG allows you to download the data from Yahoo! Finance website and to compute summary statistics and risk measures about the XRP.

Data file

The R program that you can download above allows you to download the data for the Ethereum from the Yahoo! Finance website. The database starts on December, 2017.

Table 3 below represents the top of the data file for the Ethereum downloaded from the Yahoo! Finance website with the R program.

Table 3. Top of the data file for XRP.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website)

Python code

You can download the Python code used to download the data from Yahoo! Finance.

Python script to download XRP historical data and save it to an Excel sheet::

import yfinance as yf

import pandas as pd

# Define the ticker symbol for Ethereum

xrp_ticker = “XRP-USD”

# Define the date range for historical data

start_date = “2020-01-01”

end_date = “2022-01-01”

# Download historical data using yfinance

xrp_data = yf.download(xrp_ticker, start=start_date, end=end_date)

# Create a Pandas DataFrame from the downloaded data

xrp_df = pd.DataFrame(xrp_data)

# Define the Excel file path

excel_file_path = “xrp_historical_data.xlsx”

# Save the data to an Excel sheet

xrp_df.to_excel(excel_file_path, sheet_name=”XRP Historical Data”)

print(f”Data saved to {excel_file_path}”)

# Make sure you have the required libraries installed and adjust the “start_date” and “end_date” variables to the desired date range for the historical data you want to download.

Evolution of the Ethereum

Figure 5 below gives the evolution of the Ethereum on a daily basis.

Figure 5. Evolution of the XRP.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Figure 6 below gives the evolution of the Ethereum returns from November 09, 2017 to December 31, 2022 on a daily basis.

Figure 6. Evolution of the XRP returns.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Summary statistics for the Ethereum

The R program that you can download above also allows you to compute summary statistics about the returns of the Ethereum.

Table 4 below presents the following summary statistics estimated for the Ethereum:

The mean

The standard deviation (the squared root of the variance)

The skewness

The kurtosis.

The mean, the standard deviation / variance, the skewness, and the kurtosis refer to the first, second, third and fourth moments of statistical distribution of returns respectively.

Table 4. Summary statistics for XRP

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Statistical distribution of the Ethereum returns

Figure 7 represents the historical distribution of the Ethereum daily returns for the period from November 09, 2017 to December 31, 2022.

Figure 7. Historical XRP distribution of the returns.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Gaussian distribution

Figure 8 below represents the Gaussian distribution of the XRP daily returns with parameters estimated over the period from November 09, 2017 to December 31, 2022.

Figure 9. Gaussian distribution of the XRP returns.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Risk measures of the Ethereum returns

The R program that you can download above also allows you to compute risk measures about the returns of the Ethereum.

Table 5 below presents the following risk measures estimated for the Ethereum:

The long-term volatility (the unconditional standard deviation estimated over the entire period)

The short-term volatility (the standard deviation estimated over the last three months)

The Value at Risk (VaR) for the left tail (the 5% quantile of the historical distribution)

The Value at Risk (VaR) for the right tail (the 95% quantile of the historical distribution)

The Expected Shortfall (ES) for the left tail (the average loss over the 5% quantile of the historical distribution)

The Expected Shortfall (ES) for the right tail (the average loss over the 95% quantile of the historical distribution)

The Stress Value (SV) for the left tail (the 1% quantile of the tail distribution estimated with a Generalized Pareto distribution)

The Stress Value (SV) for the right tail (the 99% quantile of the tail distribution estimated with a Generalized Pareto distribution)

Table 5. Risk measures for the XRP.

Source: computation by the author (data: Yahoo! Finance website).

Why should I be interested in this post?

XRP, the cryptocurrency associated with Ripple, is a compelling subject for students, especially those in finance, economics, business, and technology. Ripple’s focus on revolutionizing cross-border transactions and its unique blockchain technology offer insights into innovations in financial technology. Exploring XRP provides a deeper understanding of blockchain, cryptocurrency markets, regulatory challenges, and the practical applications of decentralized systems. Students can gain valuable knowledge about market dynamics, investment opportunities, and the intersection of technology and finance by delving into the complexities of XRP and its impact on the financial industry.

Useful resources

Academic research about risk

Longin F. (2000) From VaR to stress testing: the extreme value approach Journal of Banking and Finance, N°24, pp 1097-1130.

Longin F. (2016) Extreme events in finance: a handbook of extreme value theory and its applications Wiley Editions.

Data

Yahoo! Finance

Yahoo! Finance Historical data for XRP

CoinMarketCap Historical data for XRP

About the author

The article was written in January 2024 by Snehasish CHINARA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management, 2022-2024).

Unifying Forces: Cross-Border AML Collaboration in Safeguarding Global Finances

March 20, 2024March 17, 2024 by Nithisha CHALLA

Unifying Forces: Cross-Border AML Collaboration in Safeguarding Global Finances

In this article, Nithisha CHALLA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management (MiM), 2021-2024) presents the cross-border collaboration of national entities to prevent money laundering.

Introduction

In an era marked by unprecedented global connectivity, the fight against financial crimes, particularly money laundering, has transcended national boundaries. The escalating sophistication of financial crimes, coupled with the interconnectedness of the global economy, has underscored the need for collaborative approaches to tackle money laundering.

Cross-border anti-money laundering (AML) collaboration involves the sharing of intelligence, resources, and best practices among nations, regulatory authorities, and financial institutions to effectively thwart illicit financial activities that transcend borders.

Money laundering rarely respects national borders. Criminal organizations exploit gaps in regulatory frameworks, leveraging multiple jurisdictions to obscure the origins of illicit funds. Cross-border collaboration is essential to address this globalized nature of financial crimes.

According to UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime), the estimated amount of money laundered globally in one year is between 2 to 5% of global GDP, or between $800 billion to $2 trillion in current US dollars. Due to the clandestine nature of money-laundering, it is however difficult to estimate the total amount of money that goes through the laundering cycle.

Key Elements of Cross-Border AML Collaboration

Information Sharing

Collaborative platforms used by national entities enable countries to share vital information about suspicious transactions, emerging trends, and high-risk entities. Timely information exchange enhances the ability to detect and prevent money laundering activities.

Standardization of AML Practices

Establishing common standards for AML practices ensures consistency across borders. Harmonizing regulations and procedures facilitates smoother collaboration, reduces regulatory arbitrage, and creates a united front against money laundering.

For example, in cryptocurrency, the Travel Rule mandates global sharing of customer information during transactions, aligning with guidelines of the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) for standardized anti-money laundering practices. This ensures consistency and strengthens defenses against illicit financial activities.

Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties

A Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty (MLAT) provides a legal framework for countries to request and provide assistance in legal matters, including the investigation and prosecution of money laundering. Strengthening and expanding these treaties contribute to more effective cross-border collaboration.

For instance, if Country A is investigating financial crimes and requires bank records from Country B, both nations, bound by an MLAT, can exchange information, and collaborate on the investigation, enhancing the effectiveness of their legal systems in combating transnational crimes.

Technological Integration

Leveraging technology, such as advanced analytics and artificial intelligence, facilitates the identification of patterns indicative of money laundering. Shared technological solutions enhance the efficiency of AML efforts across borders.

Joint Investigations

Cross-border collaboration allows for joint investigations involving law enforcement agencies from multiple countries. This coordinated approach increases the chances of uncovering complex money laundering schemes and holding perpetrators accountable.

Role of FATF in Cross-Border AML Collaboration?

Established in 1989, the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) is a professional association comprising member countries and jurisdictions committed to combating money laundering and terrorist financing. This intergovernmental organization sets international standards, develops policies, and conducts assessments to promote effective Anti-Money Laundering (AML) and Counter-Terrorist Financing (CTF) measures worldwide.

Key Contributions of FATF in Cross-Border AML:

Setting International Standards: FATF establishes and updates a set of AML and CTF standards, commonly known as the FATF Recommendations. These standards provide a unified foundation for countries to strengthen their legal, regulatory, and operational frameworks against money laundering and terrorist financing.
Mutual Evaluations: FATF conducts regular mutual evaluations, wherein member countries assess each other’s compliance with FATF Recommendations. This process fosters transparency and accountability, encouraging nations to enhance their AML and CTF efforts.
Issuing Public Statements: When a country is identified as having deficiencies in its AML/CTF framework, FATF issues public statements, creating international awareness. This mechanism encourages corrective actions and bolsters cross-border cooperation to address vulnerabilities.
International Cooperation and Information Sharing: This collective effort strengthens the ability to identify and combat transnational financial crimes.

Benefits and Challenges

As technology continues to advance, collaborative efforts are poised to become more sophisticated, providing an even greater advantage in the ongoing battle against money laundering. Cross-border AML collaboration offers numerous benefits, including enhanced detection capabilities, stronger deterrence against financial crimes, and the establishment of a more resilient global financial system.

Though there are several benefits for the cross-border AML collaboration, it is also quite challenging to find good solutions.

Differing Legal Frameworks

Varied legal frameworks across countries pose challenges. Establishing common principles and encouraging mutual recognition of legal systems can help address disparities.

Cultural and Language Barriers

Cultural and language differences can impede effective collaboration. Training programs and cultural awareness initiatives foster better communication and understanding among collaborating entities.

Data Privacy Concerns

Data privacy regulations can hinder information sharing. Implementing robust data protection measures and ensuring compliance with privacy laws are crucial for overcoming this challenge.

Why should I be interested in this post?

If you decide to work in the realms of finance, international law, or even within a multinational corporation, understanding the intricacies of cross-border collaboration in Anti-Money Laundering (AML) becomes a must. This knowledge not only ensures regulatory compliance for businesses operating across borders but also provides professionals with insights into legal frameworks, treaties, and diplomatic efforts that underpin a secure and stable global financial landscape.

Useful resources

United Kingdom government Action plan for anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist finance

IMF Combating the finance of terrorism

Financial crimes enforcement network (US agency) History of anti-money laundering laws

Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF)

Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties (with the US)

About the author

The article was written in March 2024 by Nithisha CHALLA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management (MiM), 2021-2024).

Market Consensus Based on Financial Analysts’ Forecasts

January 15, 2025March 17, 2024 by Nithisha CHALLA

Market Consensus Based on Financial Analysts’ Forecasts

In this article, Nithisha CHALLA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management (MiM), 2021-2024) explains what is the market consensus based on financial analysts’ forecasts.

Introduction

Market consensus represents the average derived from the individual predictions made by financial analysts who closely monitor and analyze corporate and market conditions. In the context of financial analysts’ forecasts, the consensus refers to the collective expectation or average prediction of a group of analysts regarding the future performance of a firm measured by sales and profits, of a financial asset such as a stock, commodity, or currency. Few examples of market consensus based on financial analysts forecast would be: Forecasts for economic indicators such as GDP growth, inflation rates, or unemployment levels. It is derived from the aggregated predictions of various analysts, providing a consensus viewpoint on the expected direction or magnitude of economic changes. Forecasts of the future exchange rates between currencies such as the euro/dollar rate. If multiple analysts predict the exchange rates for the Euro to U.S. Dollar, the market consensus would be an average or median of these forecasts, indicating the collective expectation for the currency pair. Forecasts of price targets for stocks based on the projections of future performance. If a market stock is covered by multiple analysts, the market consensus price target would be the average of those figures, giving investors a benchmark for assessing the stock’s anticipated value. Forecasts of the company’s earnings per share (EPS). The market consensus, in this case, would be the average or median of these individual EPS predictions, representing the collective expectation of analysts regarding Company’s earnings. Forecasts of commodity prices such as oil, gold, or agricultural products. The market consensus for a commodity’s future price is determined by averaging or considering the median of these individual forecasts, reflecting the consensus view on the commodity’s likely trajectory.

Key participants

Financial analysts

Talk about financial analysts: who are they?where do they work? To determine the market consensus for Apple Inc. (AAPL), one would typically aggregate and analyze the forecasts and estimates provided by sell-side financial analysts who cover the company. These analysts regularly publish their projections for key financial metrics such as revenue, earnings per share (EPS), and other performance indicators.

Market consensus firms

Market consensus firms specialize in producing market consensus based on financial analysts’ forecasts and opinions. These firms aggregate and analyze data from multiple analysts to provide a consensus view on various financial metrics such as earnings estimates, revenue projections, and target prices for individual stocks and broader market indices. Some prominent firms that offer market consensus based on financial analysts’ input include: FactSet: FactSet aggregates and standardizes data from various sources, including sell-side analysts, to provide consensus estimates for earnings, revenue, and other financial metrics. Their platform offers detailed consensus estimates for individual companies, sectors, and industries. Refinitiv (formerly Thomson Reuters): Refinitiv offers consensus estimates and forecasts compiled from sell-side analysts’ research reports. Their platform provides consensus data on earnings, revenue, and other key financial metrics for equities, fixed income, and commodities. IBES by Refinitiv: IBES (Institutional Brokers’ Estimate System) is a leading database of consensus estimates and analyst recommendations. It offers comprehensive coverage of earnings estimates, revenue projections, and other financial metrics for thousands of companies globally.

Data providers

Companies that provide financial data and analytics services play a crucial role. They compile and disseminate information about analysts’ forecasts, making it accessible to various participants in the financial ecosystem. Bloomberg is a prominent example here, its terminal, a widely used platform in the financial industry, aggregates and delivers a vast array of financial data, including analysts’ predictions and consensus estimates. It also exemplifies how data providers contribute to the transparency and accessibility of financial analysts’ forecasts.

Investors

Investors rely on the forecasts and predictions made by financial analysts to make informed investment decisions. The market consensus provides investors with a collective viewpoint, helping them assess potential risks and returns. Their role is pivotal in the financial markets, and they interact with market consensus in several ways like decision making, portfolio construction, risk assessment, performance evaluation, communication with shareholders, etc.

Traders

Traders are individuals or entities that actively buy and sell financial instruments, such as stocks, bonds, currencies, or commodities, with the aim of making short-term profits. Traders can be categorized into various types, including day traders, swing traders, and algorithmic traders, each with a different time horizon and approach to the market. There are various types of traders, each with different strategies, time horizons, and goals. Few examples of them would be day trader, swing trader, Algo trader, position trader, scalper, options trader, forex trader and commodity trader.

Process for building a market consensus

Building a market consensus involves aggregating the predictions and expectations of various financial analysts, experts, and stakeholders regarding the future performance of a financial instrument, economic indicator, or asset.

There are certain steps we typically follow in this process:

Data collection of forecasts: Financial analysts, often employed by brokerage firms, investment banks, or independent research firms, conduct in-depth analyses of specific assets, companies, or economic indicators. They generate individual forecasts based on factors such as earnings projections, economic data, and market trends.
Analyst Ratings and Recommendations: Analysts may assign ratings (e.g., buy, hold, sell) and provide recommendations for investors. These ratings and recommendations reflect their views on the expected performance of a particular asset. These assessments contribute to the overall market consensus.
Normalization: Before computing the consensus, the data may undergo normalization to ensure consistency across different analysts’ estimates. This step involves adjusting for any variations in reporting standards, accounting methods, or other factors that could affect the comparability of estimates.
Weighting: Some consensus providers may apply weighting to analysts’ estimates based on factors such as historical accuracy, reputation, or coverage universe. Weighting ensures that more accurate or influential analysts have a greater impact on the consensus.
Calculation: The market consensus is calculated by averaging the aggregated forecasts and estimates from all contributing analysts. This average represents the consensus view of analysts regarding the expected performance of the company or market index for the specified period.
Dissemination: The computed consensus estimates are then disseminated to clients through various channels, such as financial data platforms, research reports, and market data terminals. Clients use this information to assess market expectations, benchmark against their own forecasts, and make investment decisions.
Tracking and Updates: Market consensus providers continuously track and update the consensus estimates as new information becomes available. This includes incorporating revisions to analysts’ forecasts, earnings announcements, and other relevant developments that may impact the consensus view.

It’s important to note that while market consensus based on financial analysts’ estimates provides valuable insights into market expectations, it is not a guarantee of future performance. Investors should consider various factors, conduct their own analysis, and exercise judgment when making investment decisions. Additionally, consensus estimates are subject to revisions over time as new information emerges and analysts update their forecasts. The market consensus is key to understand how financial markets work, how stock market prices react to the announcements of profits by firms or economic indicators.

Quality of the market consensus

Behavioral Influences

Beyond numbers and charts, market consensus is deeply influenced by human behavior. Emotions, biases, and psychological factors play a significant role in shaping consensus views. Behavioral finance studies, backed by statistical evidence, highlight how psychological biases such as herding, overreaction, and anchoring contribute to the formation and evolution of consensus views.

Talk about Dot bubble of the 2000s

The late 1990s saw the widespread adoption of the internet for both commercial and personal use. In 2000, the stock market experienced a significant downturn. Dot-com stocks, in particular, faced sharp declines, wiping out substantial market capitalization. The Dot-Com Bubble refers to the rapid rise, speculative frenzy, and subsequent collapse of stock prices of many internet-based companies in the late 1990s and early 2000s.

Example: market consensus for Apple

The prevailing market sentiment toward Apple Inc. (AAPL) is generally optimistic, according to analyst assessments. As reported by Stock Analysis, the consensus among 32 analysts places the average price target for Apple’s stock at $203.25. The range spans from a low estimate of $120 to a high estimate of $250. Based on this average target, a potential increase of approximately 11.48% is anticipated from the current stock price of $182.32. Notably, analysts collectively advocate a “Buy” rating for Apple.

source: Yahoo website – https://finance.yahoo.com/quote/AAPL/analysis/

Yahoo Finance offers in-depth projections for Apple’s financial performance, encompassing estimates for earnings and revenue across upcoming quarters and years. For the ongoing quarter concluding in March 2024, analysts predict an average earnings per share (EPS) of $1.51, accompanied by revenue estimates averaging $91.02 billion. These forecasts align with a broader outlook suggesting a growth trajectory for Apple, with both EPS and revenue anticipated to expand in the subsequent years. For those seeking more comprehensive analyses and real-time updates on Apple’s stock performance, as well as expert opinions from analysts, a direct visit to Yahoo Finance and Stock Analysis is recommended.

Why should I be interested in this post?

In essence, this article provides a perspective on market consensus based on financial analysts. For a student who would like to work in finance (either in the corporate world or the financial sector), it is important to know about the market consensus as it relates to both the corporate world and financial markets.

Useful resources

Market consensus What is market consensus?

Faster Capital Navigating Markets: The Power of Market Analysis and Consensus Estimates

About the author

The article was written in March 2024 by Nithisha CHALLA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management (MiM), 2021-2024).

Multiples valuation method for stocks

March 5, 2024 by Jorge KARAM DIB

Multiples valuation method for stocks

In this article, Jorge KARAM DIB (ESSEC Business School, Master in Strategy and Management of International Business (SMIB), 2024-2025) introduces the method to evaluate stocks called “multiples valuation”.

How much should a stock be worth?

Valuing stocks is a complex yet essential endeavor for investors seeking to make informed decisions in the financial markets. Knowing if you are paying a fair price or if you are over or under paying for a stock is every investors question. Of course, a decision on whether investing or not in a company comes after a long due diligence of valuating the financials of the company, following their reports, and many more actions to ensure you are buying something of value. Some investors call this method “value investing”, when the investor value a stock above the actual price, it is said that the type of investing is “value”, trying to take advantage of the differential between the actual price and the theoretical price. And when they buy a stock for a competitive advantage that is not expected in the near future to concede, it is usually called “growth investing”. Although some famous investors disagree in these definitions, they are used frequently in the financial language.

While there is no one-size-fits-all approach to valuing stocks, investors often turn to a range of methodologies, one of which is multiples analysis. By examining multiples such as price-to-earnings (P/E), price-to-book (P/B), and price-to-sales (P/S), and many more, investors gain insights into how the market values a company relative to its earnings, assets, or revenue. In this article we will try to shine a light on this valuating method and walk through the benefits and limitations the method has.

Multiples valuation method

Multiples valuation method involves analyzing one or more multiples, such as the price-to-earnings (P/E), price-to-book (P/B), and price-to-sales (P/S) ratios, among others. Each multiple provides a unique perspective on how the market values a company relative to its earnings, assets, or revenue.

The price-to-earnings (P/E) ratio, for instance, compares a company’s stock price to its earnings per share (EPS), indicating how much investors are willing to pay for each dollar of earnings generated by the company. A low P/E ratio may suggest that the stock is undervalued, while a high P/E ratio could indicate overvaluation.

One key aspect of this method is that it is usually compared against the ratios of companies within the same industry. It is from the investor’s criteria to decide which filters to apply for deciding against what companies the objective should be compared with, but usually it should be on the same market, region can also be an important factor, and also the size.

There are many sources of information to consult the information from, many of them free. This platform simplifies the valuation by providing not only the information, but in some cases, the ability to connect through an API and do the consulting automatically through a query. In the next image is shown an example from Capital IQ, one of the most prestigious information sources in the financial world, about Walmart and some recommendations from the platform of similar companies in the market to facilitate the calculation.

Walmart’s comparison.
Walmart
Source: Capital IQ.

Calculations

Calculating multiples involves straightforward mathematical formulas that utilize key financial metrics derived from a company’s financial statements. If we use the case for P/E, then we would need to divide the “Market price per share” with the “Earnings per share”. After getting the ratio, let’s say of Walmart, the next step is to get the median P/E for the “similar” companies that the investor decided to compare the company with. With these two values the investor can start seeing a trend on where the company is positioned versus their competitors. The next step is to calculate the price per share of Walmart using the P/E of the similar companies, and see the comparison between the price with the original P/E versus the “mean” of similar companies.

Example: Walmart

This section will be dedicated to illustrate the method explained earlier using Walmart as an example and Capital IQ as the source of information. The first step is to consult the key financials as shown in the next picture.

Walmart’s key financials.
Walmart financials
Source: Capital IQ.

Next, compute the information with the comparable companies suggested by Capital IQ. Important to note that the companies can be added or withdrawn according to everyone’s own criteria.

Comparable analysis.
Comparable companies
Source: Capital IQ.

After retrieving all the information, the next step is to do the calculations explained earlier in the document. The mean EV/EBITDA ratio for the comparable companies and then recalculate the price of Walmart’s stock using the mean EV/EBITDA ratio.

Mean EV/EBITDA ratio.

Source: Capital IQ.

Valuation of Walmart’s stock.

Source: Capital IQ.

In this case, we see an underappreciation of Walmart’s stock, this doesn’t mean that anyone shouldn’t buy stocks of the company, is just the perspective of the valuation method, and also it is not an investing advice.

Conclusions

The multiples valuation method provides investors with a valuable framework for assessing the worth of a stock by comparing it to similar companies within the same industry. By using this method, investors gain insights into how the market values a company relative to its earnings, assets, or revenue.

However, it’s important to recognize the limitations of this approach. Multiples analysis relies heavily on historical financial data and may not fully capture future growth prospects or qualitative factors such as industry dynamics and competitive positioning. Additionally, multiples are subject to fluctuations in market sentiment and may not always reflect the intrinsic value of a company accurately.

Despite these limitations, multiples analysis remains a widely used and valuable tool in the arsenal of investors. When applied judiciously and supplemented with thorough research and analysis, multiples can provide valuable insights into a company’s valuation and help investors identify potential investment opportunities.

Why should I be interested in this post?

This post is with the only intention for educational purposes. Targeting people who are interested in knowing more about valuation methods for stocks. In any way this article pretends to be an investment advice and/or suggestion. Any decision should be taken under personal responsibility and with their respective due diligence previous to the decision.

Useful resources

McKinsey & Company The right role for multiples in valuation

Chastenet E. and A. Marion (2015) Valuation Using Industry Multiples: How to Choose the Most Relevant Multiples, Business Valuation Review, 34(4): 173-183.

Schueler A. (2020) Valuation with Multiples: A Conceptual Analysis, Journal of Business Valuation and Economic Loss Analysis, 15(1) pp. 20190020.

About the author

The article was written in March 2024 by Jorge KARAM DIB (ESSEC Business School, Master in Strategy and Management of International Business (SMIB), 2024-2025).

Explanations for the recent changes in the Mexican economic landscape

March 5, 2024 by Jorge KARAM DIB

Explanations for the recent changes in the Mexican economic landscape

In this article, Jorge KARAM DIB (ESSEC Business School, Master in Strategy and Management of International Business (SMIB), 2024-2025) shares his thoughts about the different financial instruments recently available in Mexico that have been changing the economic landscape for the country and their residents in the recent years. He especially explains the role of high interest rates, new digital banks, and nonbanking financial instruments in Mexico’s recent booming economy, sharp Mexican peso appreciation, and strong increase in its GDP.

Interest rates in Mexico

For the last couple of years, the world has lived an era of high interest rates, mainly derived from the high inflation we got out of the pandemic and the war in Ukraine. Since then, the priority of most of the central banks of the world has been to cool down the economy and bring down inflation. Mexico has not been the exception. Mexico’s interest rates have been between 10% and 11% in the past three years. Some economists may consider this level -dangerously- high, but the country has seen mostly benefits like increasing peso’s appreciation, and a strong growth in the national GDP, from this level of interest rates than negative outcomes, and most important, Mexico’s government has been able to maintain the interest rates under a “controlled” level.

Evolution of Mexico’s interest rates.
Interest Rates Mexico
Source: Trading Economics.

The strategy of Mexico’s Central Bank has been very clear: to stay above the interest rates of the U.S.A. The benefits of staying above the interest of the USA’s is to target the remittances (money, mainly US Dollars, sent to Mexico, by migrant workers to their families), an objective that due the geographical conditions become very relevant. According to Statista, remittances represent a 4% of their GDP, either if it’s from migrant workers sending money to their families, or foreign investors trying to take advantage of the high interest rates in the country. “CETES” (Certificados de la Tesorerís de la Federación) is one of the most attractive instruments for foreign investments, because of the security CETES represent by being an instrument issued by the Mexican government, in the form of bonds mainly, with a return rate oscillating between 10%-12%.

CETES.
CETES
Source: S&P Dow Jones indices.

Digital Banks

There’s a recent uptrend in Latin America, but specially in Mexico of digital banks. In the last couple of years, we’ve seen multiple companies trying to gain market share, derived from the massive success of the Brazilian “unicorn” start-up Nu bank. In Mexico, the number of digital banks is starting to get closer to the traditional banks. Just in the last years, digital banks like Klar, Ualá, Hey Banco, RappiPay, among many others have entered the Mexican market with the objective to compete for market share with Nu bank.

Apart from the many benefits and functionalities that digital banks provide, better than the traditional banks, they’ve tried to attract more customers by trying to take advantage by offering the customers the possibility of investing their money inside their organization by adding a tool to their services called a “SOFIPO”, which will be explained further in the article. The return offered by each SOFIPO will depend on each institution issuing the instrument, but it will be mainly linked to the interest rate in the country. As we mentioned before, we are in a high interest rate season, which has turned into a “bidding war” for digital banks to offer better returns. As of February 2024, Nu bank offers one of the highest with 15%, Klar 14%, Hey Banco 11%, Ualá 15%.

The Mexican peso appreciated against the dollar in 2023 by 14%, reaching an eight-year low. Important to note that all these attractive financial instruments joined with a strong benefit from the world’s leading trends like nearshoring, have made Mexico become one of the best performing countries in terms of economy in the past few years and also one of the most attractive to invest in.

Mexican peso.
MXN
Source: Yahoo finance.

¿What is a SOFIPO?

Acronym for “Sociedad Financiera Popular” (Popular Financial Society), are defined as financial institutions -nonbanking- regulated by the CNBV (Comisión Nacional Bancaria y de Valores en México). They offer a wide variety of financial instruments such as personal loans, credits, financing for small companies, and more. The intention of why this instruments (SOFIPO’s) were created is mainly to open the financial services to a broader public and/or have more inclusion when it comes about investing, credits, and more.

Conclusions

There is no doubt that Mexico has a good advantage when it comes to macroeconomic trends, mainly due its geographical position. But recently, they have been able to complement the attractiveness with financial instruments and rates extremely attractive to the foreign audience and the local one. The challenge lies in keeping under control the high interest rates, even though inflation is not in double digits anymore, the benefits that the actual rates have brought to the country have been substantial, besides as the original plan is to follow with a margin the decisions of the U.S.A., there is no decision yet to bring down the rates. Not everything is positive with this financial conditions, the cost of debt in the country is very high at the moment, which will slow down the sales of houses and cars.

Why should I be interested in this post?

This post is with the intention to shine a light on potential advantages and trends that are happening in one of the most attractive countries, financially and economically speaking in the world. In any way this article pretends to be an investment advice and/or suggestion. Any decision should be taken under personal responsibility and with their respective due diligence previous to the decision.

Useful resources

Trading Economics Mexico interest rate

Mexico Business News Nonbanking financial institutions face historic opportunity

Statista Remesas en Mexico

S&P Dow Jones IndicesS&P BMV Government CETES Bond Index

El Economista Nu Mexico busca combatir el ahorro pasivo lanza oficialmente cuenta de ahorro

El Universal Guerra de tasas, Nu ofrece rendimientos de 15 en cuenta de ahorro

Mexico Business News Mexican peso appreciation 2023 affects public revenues

About the author

The article was written in March 2024 by Jorge KARAM DIB (ESSEC Business School, Master in Strategy and Management of International Business (SMIB), 2024-2025).

My experience as a Data analyst in CEMEX

March 5, 2024March 5, 2024 by Jorge KARAM DIB

My experience as a Data analyst in CEMEX

In this article, Jorge KARAM DIB (ESSEC Business School, Master in Strategy and Management of International Business (SMIB), 2024-2025) shares his professional experience as a Data Analyst and Data Management in CEMEX.

About the company

CEMEX is one of the leaders in building materials in the world. Their main products are cement, concrete, and aggregates (building materials in general). Based in Mexico, CEMEX reported a $15bn USD revenue in 2022, representing a 12% increase from the previous year. The company’s sales distribution, with cement, leading at 42%, followed by concrete at 33%, aggregates at 14%, and urban development at 11%, illustrates a balanced yet strategic emphasis on its core products and services.

Geographically, CEMEX’s influence spans major regions, with a substantial presence in Mexico, the USA, Europe, Asia, the Middle East, South America, and the Caribbean. Its operational footprint includes 64 cement plants, 1348 ready-mix concrete facilities, 246 quarries, 269 distribution centers, and 68 marine terminals, showcasing its capacity to serve a global clientele effectively.

At their beginnings, the company started with a single plant in Hidalgo, Mexico, called “Planta Hidalgo” under the direction of Mr. Lorenzo Zambrano, founder and CEO. Ever since then, the company adopted a philosophy of growing by acquisition. Great financial ratios, high volume of sales related to a big percentage of market share in Mexico, allowed CEMEX to do key strategic acquisitions throughout the next years that catapulted CEMEX into the international markets. Even with the financial crisis in 2008, they have been resilient and survived a big economic turmoil thanks to their high-quality products, service and cutting-edge advancements in digitalization, supply chain and data management.

Logo of the company
Logo of CEMEX
Source: CEMEX.

At the beginning of my career in the company, I started inside a program called “Digital Professionals in Development” (DPiD) which aimed to train and prepare 100 recently graduates to help the company boost the digital transformation in a period where CEMEX was going through a major digital transition of the commercial customer experience. Inside the program, I started as a Data Scientist inside the Global Data Analytics department, which allowed me to understand the different schemes of work, the hierarchical processes, capabilities and scope of the company and the institutional tools.

After working for the Global Data Analytics, another area that I’ve had experience, and where I’ve spent most of my time with, is the Commercial Development Area. Here, the intention is to keep the company at the state of the art in the commercial practices and keeping up with the technological trends of the world. My main duties have been regarding Data Management, on the development and management of advanced data analytics projects and master data quality, everything under the commercial umbrella.

My expertise at Data Management

Advanced Analytics

The way Advanced Analytics topics are managed is in a scheme by projects and in a cross-functional mode with other areas of the company like data architecture, supply chain, and more. According to the needs, or trends that anyone in the company points out, we assess the feasibility and benefit of approaching a new idea.

Some of the topics that we’ve been approaching have to do with increasing sales, enhance customer experience, increase Net Promoter Score (NPS), and improve the digital experience. One of the main projects that we’ve been developing is aligned with the retention of customers by predicting with service variables, historic volume trends, and machine learning the probability of a customer leaving the company. This effort requires to align with sales people of the different regions to set thresholds for the service variables and come to an agreement, consume information from the correct architecture source, and do the development of the machine learning model. As a final product, we’ve got the model embedded in a dashboard that the sales people can consult at any time, joined by monthly alerts sent to their email and their Customer Relationship Management (CRM) account.

Data Quality

Within the area, we’re managing the quality of the commercial information by managing and implementing actions to improve their completeness and accuracy. We acknowledge the importance of a high-quality level of information. Understanding that high data quality is the base of a successful forecast, project improvements, and in general for a company to become data driven.

As expected with a company that has presence in many regions of the world, the amount of information and different types of it can be overwhelming, a prioritization and starting point had to be put in place in order to overcome the overwhelming amount of information. Naturally, the first step was to define the attributes, and fields to be measured. After doing so, we had a clear picture of pain points throughout the regions and we prioritize the remediation of them. Lastly, as we don’t want to be continuously doing the cleaning effort, we want to maintain as much as possible the incoming information clean, in order to do so, it is necessary to put entry point validations to only allow clean information to come into the systems.

Required skills and knowledge

It is necessary to have the “hard skills” to work with the institutional tools, in CEMEX’s case, it is needed to know SQL, Power Bi, and Python (and/or R). Apart from the “hard skills” just mentioned, it is also necessary for “soft skills” to be known and/or developed, which would be to coordinate different areas and teams to work together, frequent results report, presentations to stakeholders, agile methodology to follow the progress of the project, and more.

What I learned

My main takeaways that I’ve had working at these projects is the importance of coordination with other areas, the help and expertise that you can get from relying with people with more experience would be as a shortcut for a lot of problems that may arise. Always ask for help whenever you feel that you might be stuck with an issue and be open to receive new ideas.

Financial concepts related my internship

EBITDA/Debt ratio

As mentioned earlier, part of the company’s philosophy is to grow by acquisition, hence the EBITDA/Debt ratio is crucial in order to get debt with lower interest rates, as the ratio is part of the key financials that banks and rating entities take into account when analyzing a company.

Return on Assets (ROA)

This financial indicator measures a company’s efficiency in generating profits from its assets. It is calculated by dividing the company’s net income by its average total assets. In other words, ROA indicates how effectively a company is utilizing its assets to generate earnings.

Why should I be interested in this post?

This post is with the intention that any student or alumni can have a glimpse of the structure of my professional experience in a company that is based in a different continent and would probably help them compare and see the main differences and similitudes between what is being done in Europe against what is being done in Mexico.

Useful resources

CEMEX Official webpage in France (ICD)

About the author

The article was written in March 2024 by Jorge KARAM DIB (ESSEC Business School, Master in Strategy and Management of International Business (SMIB), 2024-2025).

Contracts for Difference

February 21, 2024 by Isaac ALLIALI

Contracts for Difference

In this article, Isaac ALLIALI (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), 2019-2023) explains the Contracts for Difference (CFD).

Understanding CFDs

Although banned in the US and for US citizens, the Contract for Difference (CFD) is a relatively new contract, introduced in the 1990s in Great Britain, to allow operators without permission to sell shares short, to speculate on the market’s decline. CFDs were originally based on equity swaps, which allow the exchange of the performance of a stock or stock index for an interest rate. Initially reserved for institutional investors, CFDs were later made available to individual investors and recognized by a directive from the European Union in 2004. Soon after, they gained popularity and rapidly developed in the OTC market. In contrast to centralized exchanges, the “Over The Counter” market facilitates trades directly between participants, offering flexibility for unique financial instruments and fostering niche investment opportunities. While lacking the structure of exchanges, OTC markets play a crucial role in diverse financing needs.

The contract for difference (CFD) is a very popular derivative, which essentially establishes a bilateral agreement between an investor and a broker. This contract does not grant the investor ownership of the underlying asset, but rather the right to receive the difference between the contract’s opening and closing price. Unlike contracts with an expiry date, a CFD is effectively renewed at the closing of each trading day and can be extended forward if desired; you can keep your position open indefinitely as long as there is enough margin in your account to maintain it.

In essence, contracts for differences are very similar to futures with no expiration date. While the contract remains open, your account with the provider will be debited or credited to reflect the interest and dividend alterations. The broker may offer leverage of up to 400 which serves as a powerful tool for amplifying possible financial gains (and losses). Through leveraging, the investor can gain control over a larger position than their initial capital would allow. For instance, if you have ‚Ç¨100 in your account and a leverage of 10, you take a position of ‚Ç¨1,000 (10*100).CFDs offer great flexibility to investors, CFDs provide investors with great flexibility, offering the ability to:

Speculate on a wide range of assets, including stocks, indices, currencies, commodities, etc.
Take advantage of market movements, whether upwards or downwards: enabling both buying and selling positions
Hedge an investment portfolio, using CFDs, which serve as a safeguard against price declines.
Execute advanced trading strategies.

Mechanics of CFD Trading

Opening a CFD position involves several steps. Firstly, traders choose an asset they wish to trade, such as stocks, commodities, or currencies. Secondly, they decide whether to go long (buy) or short (sell) on the asset, basing their decision on their market analysis and expectations for future price movements. Traders also determine the quantity of the asset they want to trade, which can be specified in terms of contracts or units, depending on the CFD provider. CFDs are not standardized products and every CFD broker has their own terms and conditions. Once the initial decisions have been made, the CFD provider calculates the price at which the trade will be executed. This price is typically derived from the market value of the underlying asset, taking into consideration various factors such as supply and demand dynamics, economic data, and market sentiment. The CFD provider may also incorporate a spread into the market price, which represents their profit margin. Margin requirements play a crucial role in opening and maintaining a CFD position. Traders are required to deposit a percentage of the total trade value as collateral, referred to as a margin. This ensures that traders can cover potential losses stemming from adverse price fluctuations. Margin requirements vary depending on factors such as the volatility of the underlying asset and regulatory requirements. Upon opening a position, the value of the CFD fluctuates in accordance to the underlying asset’s price movements. When traders decide to close their position, they execute an opposing trade to offset their initial position. The profit or loss from the trade is calculated based on the price difference between the opening and closing trades, adjusted for any transaction costs.

CFD trading involves various costs and fees that traders should be aware of. Spreads, representing the difference between buy and sell prices, are the primary revenue source for CFD providers and affect trading costs. Narrower spreads typically mean lower costs. Additionally, traders may face overnight financing charges for holding positions, which are influenced by factors such as the asset class and prevailing interest rates. Furthermore, some providers charge commissions on trades, based on elements such as the trading volume. Taking these costs into consideration is crucial for assessing overall profitability and developing effective trading strategies.

Application in the energy industry

NEOEN and BNRG have finalized the financing of three solar power plants in the Republic of Ireland: Hilltown, Hortland, and Millvale, located respectively in the counties of Meath, Kildare, and Wicklow. These plants, with a total capacity of 58 MWc, are among the first large-scale solar projects in the country. As the winners of the first governmental tender for solar power plants in 2020, they benefit from financial support from the Irish government through a Contract for Difference (CFD) mechanism until 2037, ensuring a stable price for the electricity generated. The financing, estimated at 39 million euros excluding financing costs, is provided by NEOEN and BNRG’s equity, alongside non-recourse senior debt from Société Générale. Construction works, awarded to Omexom, are expected to be completed in the first half of 2022,with plant commissioning set/scheduled for the same period. Once operational, these plants will supply the equivalent of 12,700 Irish households with clean electricity, thereby contributing significantly to the country’s energy transition.

Hilltown Solar farm

Source: BNRG

Millwale Solar farm

Source: BNRG

Useful resources

AMF Les CFD (contracts for difference)

BNRG

Neoen

Neoen (12/08/2021) Neoen et BNRG clôturent le financement de trois centrales solaires (58 MWc) en République d’Irlande

Dupuy, P., Fontaine, P. & Hamet, J. (2018). Chapitre 6. Les marchés dérivés et la gestion du risque. Dans : , P. Dupuy, P. Fontaine & J. Hamet (Dir), Les marchés de capitaux français (pp. 153-204). Caen: EMS Editions.

About the author

The article was written in February 2024 by Isaac ALLIALI (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), 2019-2023).

The Magnificent Seven

January 30, 2025February 21, 2024 by Isaac ALLIALI

The Magnificent Seven

In this article, Isaac ALLIALI (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), 2019-2023) presents the “magnificent seven”, the Nasdaq’s top seven performing companies and most important market capitalization.

The SEVEN

“These Seven Tech Stocks Are Driving the Market” is the headline of a New York Times issue on the 22nd of January 2024. The article spotlights the lasting growth of the “Magnificent Seven”, an expression coined by Bank of America analyst Michael Hartnett in 2023, directly referring to a group of very well-performing American companies such as Tesla, Nvidia, Apple, Microsoft, Alphabet, Meta and Amazon. These companies have seen exponential growth since economists first witnessed their joint boom last year, and as of January 19th 2024, the magnificent seven represent 29% of the S&P 500’s market value. The objective of this post is to introduce these companies, diving into their organization and structure as well as comparing their performances to conjecture on what the future may hold.

Market Value of S&P 500 companies. The Magnificent 7
Source: The New York Times

Origin of the expression

The expression “The Seven Magnificent” in financial markets is inspired by the classic Western film The Magnificent Seven (1960), itself a remake of Akira Kurosawa’s Seven Samurai (1954). In the original Japanese film, a village under threat from bandits hires seven samurai to protect them, symbolizing strength, strategy, and resilience in the face of adversity. This cinematic legacy has been adapted to financial markets to refer to a group of dominant stocks—typically the largest and most influential technology companies—that drive market performance. These firms, often characterized by their innovation, market capitalization, and economic influence, act as the “protectors” of market indices, much like the samurai or gunfighters in their respective films. The term reflects both admiration for their strength and an acknowledgment of their outsized impact on global finance.

The Nasdaq’s top 7 performing Companies

The “Magnificent Seven” have captivated investors with their meteoric rise, consistently eclipsing the broader market. But to decipher their future trajectory, we must delve deeper into their individual narratives:

Apple

This Cupertino-based company has mastered the art of premium hardware integration. Its sleek iPhones, Macs and wearables seamlessly interact with its robust software ecosystem (iOS, macOS), fostering a loyal customer base and enviable profit margins. Q4 2023 witnessed remarkable financial performance, with strong revenue and profit growth solidifying its leadership position. However, intensifying competition from Android players and regulatory scrutiny regarding App Store practices and data privacy threaten its dominance. While its valuation remains high, Apple’s brand strength, innovation pipeline, and loyal customer base suggest continued prosperity, provided it navigates these challenges deftly.

Logo of Apple Inc.

Source: the company.

Microsoft

This software giant has transformed itself from a desktop pioneer into a cloud computing powerhouse. Its Azure platform has become a formidable competitor against Amazon Web Services, while its productivity suite (Office 365) remains a staple for businesses. Q3 2023 further emphasized its strong momentum with robust financial performance. While Google Cloud Platform and Amazon Web Services pose significant competition, Microsoft’s established enterprise partnerships and focus on digital transformation grant it a strategic advantage. Its valuation, though high, reflects its consistent growth trajectory and potential for further expansion in the cloud and enterprise spheres. However, regulatory scrutiny regarding anti-competitive practices remains a key risk factor.

Logo of Microsoft Corporation

Source: the company.

Alphabet (Google)

The ubiquitous search engine and advertising giant monetizes vast user data through its search engine, YouTube platform, and Android operating system. Q3 2023 showcased impressive profits, fueled by continued dominance in online advertising. However, its data collection practices, and potential antitrust concerns create a cloud of uncertainty. While competition from Apple and Amazon in advertising and e-commerce intensifies, Google’s advancements in artificial intelligence and its foray into cloud computing offer promising prospects for the company’s future growth and innovation. Its valuation reflects its growth potential, but regulatory headwinds demand careful consideration before investing.

Logo of Alphabet

Source: the company.

Meta (Facebook)

This social media titan connects billions of users through its Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp platforms. Recent financial performance showcases modest growth, with investments in the metaverse impacting its bottom line. While the potential of the metaverse remains captivating, its success is far from guaranteed. Additionally, competition from TikTok and regulatory pressure regarding data privacy and anti-competitive practices pose significant challenges. Indeed, the Senate Judiciary Committee held a hearing this past Wednesday 31st of January 2024, where, after being pressured by Senator Josh Hawley, Republican of Missouri, Mark Zuckerberg, the CEO of Meta, apologized for the harm caused by his group. Mr. Zuckerberg stood from his chair, turned around and addressed families of victims in the audience who had suffered abuse on Meta’s apps. Meta’s high valuation reflects the risk-reward equation associated with its ambitious metaverse gamble. Investors should carefully weigh the potential rewards against the inherent uncertainties before making any investment decisions.

Logo of Meta

Source: the company.

Amazon

The undisputed king of e-commerce, Amazon, has expanded its empire to encompass cloud computing (AWS), logistics, and even healthcare. Q3 2023 demonstrated continued strong growth despite economic headwinds, highlighting its diversified revenue streams. However, competition from Walmart in e-commerce and antitrust scrutiny regarding its market dominance are critical factors to consider. Amazon’s focus on logistics innovation and potential expansion into the healthcare sector offers exciting future avenues. Its high valuation reflects its leadership position in its core segments, but investors should be wary of potential macroeconomic challenges and regulatory interventions.

Logo of Amazon

Source: the company.

Nvidia

This chipmaker has carved a niche in graphics processing units (GPUs) powering the gaming, AI, and data center industries. Q3 2023 saw explosive growth, fueled by surging chip demand and the adoption of AI in various sectors. However, competition from AMD and Intel in the semiconductor space is fierce. While Nvidia’s technological edge in AI-specific GPUs provides a temporary advantage, the cyclical nature of the semiconductor industry necessitates caution. Its high valuation reflects its growth potential, but investors should be mindful of potential downturns in the chip market. While Nvidia now holds a market share of approximately 83%, compared to AMD’s (17%), it faces strong competition.

First, there is Apple (AAPL), which has quickly developed its own laptop CPUs with graphics capabilities that it claims can compete with Nvidia’s top products. Intel (INTC) is also preparing to unveil its own line of graphics chips, which could pose a significant challenge to Nvidia. Moreover, US restrictions on Nvidia’s sales of advanced AI chips in China create a strategic opportunity for competitors such as Huawei, potentially leading to Nvidia losing market share in this important region. Huawei’s entry into the AI chip market with its Ascend AI chip series, particularly the 910B, directly competes with Nvidia’s A100 processor, and the company recently received a big order from Baidu, a major leader in Chinese technology.

Logo of Nvidia

Source: the company.

Tesla

This electric vehicle (EV) pioneer has disrupted the auto industry with its innovative EVs and clean energy solutions. Q3 2023 delivered impressive revenue and profit growth, showcasing the increasing public adoption of EVs. However, Tesla has seen its US market dominance shrink from 62% to just over 50% of the market in 2023. The company faces intensifying competition from traditional automakers and new EV startups like Rivian and Lucid as well as competitors from China like BYD who became the dominant automaker in China in 2021. And over the next few years, the growing global heft of Chinese manufacturers looks hard to beat. Chinese EV players such as BYD, Nio, Wuling, and Xpeng produced almost 60% of the world’s EVs in 2022 – and they have been doing so in a very affordable manner. In the first half of 2023, the average cost of an EV in China was US$33,000 (£26,040), more than half the US$70,700 (£55,800) people pay for EVs in Europe and the US$72,000 paid in the US. Additionally, challenges in scaling production and maintaining quality control raise concerns. Tesla’s high valuation reflects its future growth expectations, but potential macroeconomic headwinds and uncertainties surrounding battery technology advancements introduce significant risks.

Logo of Tesla

Source: the company.

Performance Comparison with indices and Competitive advantages of the “Magnificent Seven”

Magnificent Seven Performance Comparison.
Source: Yahoo Finance

The “Magnificent Seven” companies are leaders in dynamic industries like cloud computing (Microsoft), e-commerce (Amazon), and AI (Meta), driving revenue and stock price growth. Being a leader in a dynamic industry offers several key benefits, as exemplified by these tech giants. At their core, these companies boast robust financials: high-profit margins, consistent cash flow, and efficient operations which translate to investor confidence. Indeed, according to the Capital Group, the Bloomberg “Magnificent 7” Total Return Index advanced 107% in 2023 versus the overall S&P 500 Index at 24%.

There are numerous other factors driving their financial outperformance. Apple, for example, revolutionized smartphones with the iPhone, granting them a loyal user base and brand identity. Similarly, Tesla’s dominance in electric vehicles gives them valuable data and expertise, making it harder for competitors to catch up. Dynamic industries are characterized by rapid expansion and constant innovation. Leaders are poised to capture a larger share of this growth, like Microsoft’s cloud computing dominance or Alphabet’s early investment in AI research. They can also diversify into related fields, as Meta is attempting with the metaverse. Moreover, top talent seeks employers at the forefront of their field. Being a leader attracts skilled employees, fostering a culture of innovation and further solidifying the company’s position. Nvidia’s reputation for cutting-edge graphics processing units attracts top engineers, fueling their continued success.

Investors often reward market leaders with higher valuations due to their perceived stability and future growth potential. This allows companies like Apple to raise capital for further expansion and acquisitions, creating a virtuous cycle. Additionally, the current market environment plays a part. Amidst volatility, investors seek stability and potential upside, making these large, established companies with proven track records attractive safe-havens. The fact that tech stocks are generally less sensitive to rising interest rates compared to other sectors further fuels their appeal in a tightening monetary environment.

As stated above, the “Magnificent Seven” have strong fundamentals, and their financial strength, profitability, as well as growth potential underpin their success. Each of the seven stocks has easily outperformed the S&P 500’s 163% return over the last ten years, and their involvement in high-growth technologies such as high-end software and hardware, cloud computing, and artificial intelligence positions them well to continue leading their respective markets in the future.

Among the “Magnificent Seven” companies, observe strong profitability: The “Seven” boast a significantly higher average net margin (25%) compared to the S&P 500 (12%). (Source: BlackRock) This translates to substantial cash flow generation, crucial for reinvestment and future growth. For example, Tesla’s Q3 2023 net margin surpassed 17%, fueling its rapid expansion. We must also acknowledge that their average annual revenue growth (22%) outpaces the S&P 500 (10%). (Source: Motley Fool) This translates to faster stock price appreciation. Nvidia’s 80% year-to-date stock surge, driven by booming chip demand for AI applications, exemplifies this.

Additionally, we recognize in the “Seven” some form of “Market Magic”; during the last market correction (January 2023), their average decline (10%) was smaller than the S&P 500’s (15%). (Source: Qontigo) This “safety premium” attracts risk-averse investors, thus boosting their performance. Moreover, their lower average Beta (0.85) indicates that they are 15% less volatile than the rest of the market. (Source: Qontigo) This makes them more appealing in fluctuating interest rate environments. Finally, the individualities shine brighter than the rest because of the sectors they are invested in, like Nvidia benefitting from the chip surge or Meta’s ambitious metaverse projects that attract investor interest, potentially impacting future performance.

Yet, investing in them still carries risks, as these factors have already been priced in. There are also the usual risks of market volatility, regulatory changes, technological disruptions, and global economic conditions that can influence their performance. Also, previous performance does not guarantee future returns, and some of the “Magnificent Seven” stocks are overvalued based on certain basic criteria like forecast earnings multiples and price-to-sales ratios.

Stock market performance of the Magnificent Seven in 2023
Source: Bloomberg

What are the risks ahead of the “Magnificent Seven” progression?

Because of their size and reach, these companies all face regulatory risks. Regulation changes, especially in data privacy, antitrust laws, and international trade, can significantly influence their operations. Furthermore, most tech companies have faced attention for antitrust, data privacy, and tax issues. Many of them have been investigated for monopolistic tactics, and if they want to enhance their already large market shares, they will face even more scrutiny.

More broadly, widespread economic changes affect them due to their broad reach, including interest rates, inflation, economic growth, consumer confidence, and investor sentiment. Moreover, global enterprises are vulnerable to currency swings, which can impact earnings and stock values. Companies operating internationally face geopolitical risks such as trade wars, tariffs, and shifting international relations, which can impact supply chains and market access.

The Magnificent Seven are also vulnerable to cyberattacks due to their technology-based nature, a large breach could result in huge financial losses and reputational damage. Moreover, companies facing market saturation and rivalry may struggle to discover new markets and maintain growth rates. Indeed, increased competition between established firms and new startups may potentially endanger their market share. In short, by dominating their marketplaces, they become targets for any competitors wanting to build a name for themselves in their respective sectors. Companies must innovate to keep up with rapid technological progress as failure to adapt to new technology or trends may result in a loss of market relevance. Additionally, the resignation or loss of a founder or CEO may negatively impact investor sentiment and the company’s future.

Therefore, while these stocks present exciting possibilities, they also require a nuanced understanding of the technology sector’s options and a strategic investment approach.

Conclusion

The Magnificent Seven stocks represent a cohort of high-performing companies that have garnered significant attention in the investment world for their market dominance, technological advances, and growth potential. These stocks, which include Microsoft, Tesla, and NVIDIA, along with some FAANG members, are known for their influence across various sectors, such as software, hardware, electric vehicles, and artificial intelligence. They have been pivotal in driving technological trends and shaping consumer behavior, making them attractive to investors seeking growth and market leadership. However, investors need to know the risks and challenges associated with these stocks. The dynamic nature of the technology sector, regulatory scrutiny, market saturation, and global economic factors like inflation and geopolitical tensions can affect their performance. Additionally, high market valuations bring lofty expectations, and any failure to meet these can lead to significant stock price corrections.

Thus, while the Magnificent Seven offer potential for substantial growth, they also require careful analysis and a balanced approach considering their strengths and the various external factors that could influence their future trajectory.

Useful resources

Movies

Akira Kurosawa (1954) Seven Samurai.

John Sturges (1960) The Magnificent Seven.

Press articles

Le Monde (26/05/2023) Nvidia entre dans le club très sélect des champions du monde de la cote

BlackRock (01/09/2023) Factors & the Magnificent Seven

Bloomberg (06/07/2023) Tesla and Chinese Rivals Signal Truce in Brutal EV Price War

Capital Group (09/01/2024) Magnificent Seven: What do you need to believe?

The New York Times Six takeaways from a contentious online child safety hearing

The New York Times (22/01/2024) The New York Times

Qontigo (03/10/2023) Ten charts that show how the ‘Magnificent Seven’ have held sway in the US market

Wall Street Journal (12/02/2024) Think the S&P 500 Looks Pricey? Check Out the Magnificent Seven

Motley Fool Nasdaq

Seeking Alpha (22/11/2023) Nvidia: Competition On The Horizon

About the author

The article was written in February 2024 by Isaac ALLIALI (ESSEC Business School, Global Bachelor in Business Administration (GBBA), 2019-2023).

AML Policies: Safeguarding Financial Integrity

February 19, 2024February 19, 2024 by Nithisha CHALLA

In this article, Nithisha CHALLA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole – Master in Management (MiM), 2021-2024) explains the significance of Anti-Money Laundering (AML) policies.

Introduction

Firstly, what is AML? AML stands for Anti-Money Laundering. It refers to a set of national laws, regulations, and procedures designed to prevent the illegal generation of income through illicit activities and the subsequent integration of these funds into the legitimate financial system.

Primary components of Anti-Money Laundering

Primary components of anti-money laundering include customer due diligence, transaction monitoring, reporting and record-keeping, training, Know Your Customer policy and risk assessment.

Customer Due Diligence (CDD)

Financial institutions are required to perform due diligence on their customers to understand their identity, assess the nature of their financial activities, and identify any potential risks associated with money laundering.

Transaction Monitoring

Regular monitoring of financial transactions is crucial to identify patterns that may indicate suspicious activities. Unusual or large transactions may trigger alerts for further investigation.

Reporting and Record-Keeping

Financial institutions are obligated to maintain records of transactions and report any suspicious activities to relevant authorities. These reports contribute to the overall efforts to combat money laundering.

Training

AML training helps in creating a vigilant workforce capable of identifying and reporting suspicious activities.

Know Your Customer (KYC)

KYC procedures involve verifying the identity of customers to ensure they are who they claim to be. This is a fundamental aspect of preventing money laundering and other financial crimes.

Risk Assessment

Financial institutions conduct risk assessments to evaluate the potential risk of money laundering associated with certain customers, transactions, or business relationships.

Significance of money laundering

Money laundering poses a significant threat to the stability and integrity of the global financial system, making it imperative for financial institutions to prioritize AML training and awareness. This article delves into the importance of AML training, strategies for building a culture of compliance, and the pivotal role technology plays in these efforts. Money laundering, the process of making illegally gained proceeds appear legitimate, is a global concern that affects economies, financial institutions, and societies at large. Anti-Money Laundering efforts are the first line of defense against such illicit activities. One key aspect of these efforts is AML training, a proactive measure aimed at equipping financial professionals with the knowledge and skills needed to detect and prevent money laundering. AML training programs are designed to empower employees at all levels, from frontline staff to senior executives, with the tools to recognize and report suspicious activities. Now that we know the components of AML, what would be the components of an effective AML training program? Without delving into more details here are a few things we could do to make it much more effective.

Building a Culture of Compliance
Leveraging Technology for AML Training
Integration with Onboarding Processes
Encouraging Reporting and Whistleblowing
Ongoing Awareness and Leadership Involvement

Common Examples of Money Laundering Techniques

 Now that we know the significance of money laundering, we delve deeper into a few examples of money laundering in our day-to-day lives.

Smurfing (Structuring)

Smurfing, also known as structuring, is a money laundering technique whereby illegal funds are divided into smaller amounts and deposited into multiple bank accounts or financial institutions. This is done to circumvent financial regulations that require banks to report large transactions, typically exceeding a certain threshold.

Cash-Intensive Businesses

These are often exploited as a money laundering method, as they provide a convenient way to mix illicit funds with legitimate income. Criminals can use these businesses to deposit and process their illegal cash, making it difficult for authorities to trace the source. These businesses typically handle large volumes of cash through everyday operations, such as pubs, car washes, or retail shops.

Bulk Cash Smuggling

This is a prominent example of money laundering that involves the physical transportation of large quantities of illicit cash across borders. Criminals exploit this method to avoid the scrutiny of financial institutions and regulatory authorities, thereby circumventing anti-money laundering measures in place.

Shell Companies and Trusts

Shell companies and trusts are effective tools used in money laundering schemes, as they offer an intricate façade to disguise illicit funds. By establishing these entities, often in offshore jurisdictions, criminals can cleverly obscure the true origin of their wealth. Both shell companies and trusts exploit gaps in the financial system and international regulations to perpetuate money laundering activities.

Cyber Laundering

Cyber laundering, a burgeoning method of money laundering, takes advantage of the digital world to hide the origin of illegal funds. As technology progresses at breakneck speed, criminals discover new ways to cover their tracks, making it harder for traditional detection methods to catch them.

Statistics

Notable statistics (Napier) on money laundering dated February 2022 are:

Global financial crime fines handed out in 2021 totaled $9.95bn, down from 2020’s record-breaking figure of $22.86bn, according to a report by AML Intelligence
Serious and organized crime costs the UK an estimated $50.4 billion a year
The median amount of money laundered in the US in 2020 was $301,606
Corruption, bribery, and fraud accounted for a whopping 69.6% of FinCrime fines handed out in 2021

Despite its association with the Silk Road and the dark net, only 1.1% of all cryptocurrency transactions are known to be illicit.

Why should I be interested in this post?

Understanding anti-money laundering principles is not only a regulatory imperative but a strategic necessity in navigating the complex legal environment. This post offers insights into risk management, ethical conduct, and the collaborative efforts required across organizational functions to deal with anti-money laundering. This is especially important for students who would like to work in the financial sector (asset management and wealth management).

Useful resources

SAS software History of Anti-Money Laundering

IBM What is anti-money laundering?

Financial crimes enforcement network (US agency) History of anti-money laundering laws

Lexis Nexis Examples of Money Laundering Techniques

Napier 11 FinCrime facts for 2022

About the author

The article was written in February 2024 by Nithisha CHALLA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole – Master in Management (MiM), 2021-2024).

Business models of exchanges

February 19, 2024February 19, 2024 by Nithisha CHALLA

In this article, Nithisha CHALLA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole – Master in Management (MiM), 2021-2024) explains the business models of exchanges.

Introduction

Firstly, what is a business model? A business model refers to the framework that outlines how an exchange creates, delivers, and captures value from its various activities and operations. It essentially describes the way in which the exchange generates revenue, interacts with market participants, and sustains its competitive advantage within the financial ecosystem. The business model of exchanges revolves around creating a platform that facilitates the trading of financial instruments for buyers and sellers. Exchanges act as intermediaries, bringing together buyers and sellers in a regulated and transparent environment. The primary components of the business model for exchanges include marketplace facilitation, market data and technology services leading to revenues.

Delving a bit more into revenue generations and understanding the blend of volume and non-volume revenues is crucial for exchanges to ensure a diversified income stream and sustainable business growth. The primary difference between volume and non-volume revenues in the context of exchanges lies in their dependence on trading activity. Volume revenues (transaction fees for example) are directly linked to the volume of trading activity on the exchange whereas non-volume revenues are not (directly) tied to the volume of trading activity but derived from other sources (listing fees for companies). Successful exchanges strategically balance these revenue sources to adapt to changing market dynamics and evolving industry trends.

Volume revenues

Charging transaction fees

One of the primary sources of volume-based revenue for exchanges is charging transaction fees for each trade executed on their platform. Exchanges typically charge fees to both buyers and sellers for facilitating the trading of financial instruments such as stocks, bonds, or derivatives. For example, the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) charges transaction fees based on the number of shares traded.

Selling market data

Exchanges generate revenue by selling real-time market data feeds to financial institutions, traders, and data vendors. These fees are often based on the volume of data consumed. Nasdaq, for instance, charges fees for access to its proprietary market data, including bid-ask quotes and trade information.

Clearing and Settlement Fees

Exchanges may derive revenue from clearing and settlement services, especially in derivatives markets. Clearinghouses associated with exchanges ensure the fulfilment of trades by acting as intermediaries between buyers and sellers. They charge fees based on the volume of contracts cleared. The Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) is an example where clearing fees contribute to its revenue.

Non-volume revenues

Listing Fees

Exchanges often charge companies fees for listing their shares on the exchange. These fees are not directly tied to trading volumes but are based on factors like market capitalization or the number of listed securities. The London Stock Exchange (LSE), for instance, generates revenue through listing fees paid by companies listed on its markets.

Subscription and Software Services

Some exchanges offer subscription-based services and software solutions, catering to market participants’ needs for advanced analytics, trading tools, and connectivity. These services, which may include premium data feeds, trading platforms, or risk management tools, contribute non-volume-based revenue.

Technology and Licensing

Exchanges often license their technology to other financial institutions or exchanges globally. Licensing agreements for trading platforms, surveillance systems, or other proprietary technologies contribute to non-volume revenues. Euronext, for example, has a technology solutions business that provides services to other exchanges and financial institutions.

Educational Programs and Events

Some exchanges generate revenue by organizing educational programs, conferences, and events. These events may attract participants willing to pay fees for networking opportunities, industry insights, and educational sessions. Singapore Exchange (SGX) hosts events and training programs as part of its non-volume revenue initiatives.

Example: Euronext

You will find below a screenshot of Euronext revenue which was generated in years 2021 and 2022 with the different components (listing, trading revenue, investor services, data services, post-trade, and technology solutions).

For Euronext, the main revenues come from trading revenue (36.2%), post-trade (25.7%), listing (15.4%) and data services (14.9%).

Revenue generation of Euronext in the years 2021 and 2022.

Source: Euronext

Now that we spoke about revenues we generate through the business model of exchanges, the next natural question that comes to us is what kind of costs occur in managing it, right?

Various types of costs involved in the model of exchanges:

The costs involved in the business model of exchanges encompass various expenses necessary for their operations, technology infrastructure, regulatory compliance, and strategic development. A few elements of the costs involved are:

Technology Infrastructure

Exchanges invest heavily in developing and maintaining robust technology infrastructure. This includes trading platforms, data centers, and systems for order matching and execution.

Personnel Costs

Employee salaries and benefits constitute a significant portion of the costs. This includes staff involved in technology development, regulatory compliance, customer support, and other operational functions.

Regulatory Compliance

Compliance costs are essential for implementing systems that ensure adherence to regulatory requirements, supporting surveillance, risk management, and reporting.

Operational Expenses

General operational expenses cover day-to-day costs such as rent, utilities, maintenance, and administrative infrastructure.

Security and Risk Management

Investments are made in security measures and risk management systems to protect against cyber threats, fraud, and operational risks, ensuring the stability and security of the exchange.

Example: Euronext

You will find below a screenshot of Euronext expenditure in years 2021 and 2022 with the different costs involved in purchasing property, plant, equipment, and intangible assets.

Capital Expenditure of Euronext in years 2020,2021 and 2022.

Source: Eeuronext

Why should I be interested in this post?

Learning about exchange business models equips management students with insights into strategic decision-making. They can analyze how exchanges diversify revenue streams, expand globally, and adapt to market trends. The diversification of offerings by exchanges and their role in risk management showcase practical applications of management principles. Understanding how exchanges manage risks associated with different financial instruments is relevant for students interested in risk management and strategic planning.

Useful resources

Euronext

Euronext Euronext business (revenue charts)

New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) The NYSE market model

London Stock Exchange (LSE) An overview of the London Stock Exchange

About the author

The article was written in February 2024 by Nithisha CHALLA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole – Master in Management (MiM), 2021-2024).

Gautam Adani and Hedge fund Hindenburg

June 21, 2024February 19, 2024 by Nithisha CHALLA

Gautam Adani and Hedge fund Hindenburg

In this article, Nithisha CHALLA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management (MiM), 2021-2024) presents Gautam Adani’s journey of entrepreneurial success and controversies.

Introduction

Gautam Adani, a name that has become synonymous with entrepreneurial success and controversy, is one of India’s most prominent and influential business magnates. From his humble beginnings to his meteoric rise in various industries, Adani’s story is a testament to the power of determination, innovation, and risk-taking. Born on June 24, 1962, in a small town in Gujarat, India, Gautam Adani came from modest beginnings. His journey began with his family’s trading business of agricultural commodities. In the late 1970s, he moved to Mumbai to explore opportunities beyond his hometown. Adani’s first significant achievement came when he recognized the potential in the power and energy sector. He established Adani Exports Limited in 1988, which focused on the export of agricultural commodities. This marked the initial step in his entrepreneurial journey.

Early Ventures and Foundation of Adani Group

Adani Exports Limited initially focused on trading agricultural commodities, but Adani’s ambitions were much higher. He sensed the burgeoning demand for infrastructure development as India aimed to modernize and grow its economy. In 1998, Adani’s visionary move led to the creation of the Adani Ports and Special Economic Zone (APSEZ) in Mundra, Gujarat. This port became the cornerstone of his conglomerate, offering a gateway for imports and exports. The strategic location and world-class facilities propelled Adani Group to prominence in logistics and infrastructure.

Logo of Adani Group of Industries.

Source: the company.

Recognizing the importance of energy, Adani Group expanded into power generation. The acquisition of power plants, coal mines, and renewable energy projects further diversified the company’s portfolio. This diversification was crucial as Adani anticipated the global shift toward renewable energy sources and committed to substantial solar and wind energy investments.

By looking at the Adani group of industries, we observe that these companies mainly belong to the energy sector.

Evolution of Adani Group by its net worth from 2013 to 2023

The figure below shows the evolution of net worth of Adani Group of Industries for the period 2013-2023.

Networth evolution of Adani Group of Industries

Source: Statista.

Stock chart

The figure below represents the evolution of the stock price of Adani Enterprises Limited from 2022 to 2023.

Evolution of the stock price of Adani Enterprises Limited
Stock chart of Adani Group of Industries from 2002 to 2023 consolidated
Source: Yahoo! Finance

Global Recognition and Investments

Gautam Adani’s leadership and Adani Group’s success have gained global recognition. The Group’s investments in Australia’s Carmichael coal mine project and its expansion into international markets have positioned Adani as a significant player on the global stage. These international ventures, however, have also exposed him to heightened scrutiny and controversy. In recent years, Adani’s wealth has surged, making him one of the richest individuals in the world. His conglomerate’s stock prices have seen significant growth, fueled by India’s infrastructure push and economic ambitions. This growth has not only enhanced his personal wealth but also contributed to job creation and economic development in various regions. Adani Green Energy Limited, a subsidiary of Adani Group, is one of India’s largest renewable energy companies. This move aligns with global sustainability trends and showcases Adani’s adaptability to changing market dynamics.

What is Hindenburg Research and its Controversies?

Hindenburg Research, a well-known financial analysis firm, has made a name for itself by conducting in-depth investigations into various companies and industries, often revealing hidden or controversial information. The firm is named after the famous Hindenburg disaster, which symbolizes its mission to uncover potential corporate misconduct and issues that could lead to significant losses for investors. Hindenburg Research was founded by Nathan Anderson in 2017. The firm operates as a short-selling research entity, meaning it identifies companies it believes are overvalued or engaging in questionable practices and then takes a short position in their stock, betting that the stock price will decrease. Hindenburg’s reports are comprehensive and detailed, often highlighting issues such as fraud, governance concerns, and misleading business practices.

In recent years, Hindenburg Research gained significant attention for its investigations into various aspects of the Adani Group. The firm’s reports raised concerns about transparency, corporate governance, and environmental impacts associated with Adani’s businesses. Hindenburg’s reports have also had a notable impact on stock prices, causing steep declines in some cases as investors react to the information presented. By conducting thorough investigations and publishing detailed reports, Hindenburg has brought attention to potential risks and problems that could affect both investors and the broader public.

Conclusion

Gautam Adani’s journey epitomizes the entrepreneurial spirit that propels individuals from humble origins to extraordinary heights. His ventures across diverse sectors have reshaped India’s economic landscape, but they’ve also sparked debates about responsible business practices. Amid controversies and investigations by entities like Hindenburg Research, Adani’s legacy will stand as a complex tapestry of triumphs, challenges, and the ever-evolving dynamics of modern business.

Why should I be interested in this post?

Adani’s trajectory from humble beginnings to becoming a business magnate showcases the essence of entrepreneurship, offering inspiration for those aspiring to innovate and lead. His strategic diversification across industries exemplifies the power of adapting to changing market dynamics, a concept central to management education. Furthermore, Adani’s experience underscores the importance of sustainable business practices, corporate governance, and transparency – all critical topics for future business leaders. His global ventures illuminate the complexities of international business relationships. By studying his journey, master’s in management students can bridge theory with real-world application, preparing themselves to navigate the dynamic landscape of modern business with adaptability and resilience.

Useful resources

Adani Group of Industries Businesses of Adani group of industries

Yahoo financials Income statement of Adani group of industries

Statista Evolution of net worth of Adani group of industries

About the author

The article was written in February 2024 by Nithisha CHALLA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole Program – Master in Management (MiM), 2021-2024).

Index fund manager: Unveiling the Dynamics of Passive Investing

February 19, 2024February 19, 2024 by Nithisha CHALLA

In this article, Nithisha CHALLA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole – Master in management (MiM), 2021-2024) presents the job of index fund manager and their responsibilities in shaping the future of finance.

Introduction

Index funds have become a pillar of contemporary investment strategies in the dynamic world of finance. The function of an index fund manager, a specialist in charge of coordinating the smooth running of these funds, is essential to their success. A financial expert tasked with directing the management and administration of an index fund is known as an index fund manager. The performance of a particular market index, such as the S&P 500 or the FTSE 100, is replicated by index funds, commonly referred to as passive funds. Index funds strive to replicate the performance of the index they monitor, in contrast to actively managed funds, which try to beat the market (measured by the index performance). The index fund manager’s role involves closely mirroring the index’s composition and managing the fund’s investments accordingly. Index funds can take the forms of a mutual fund an exchange-traded fund (ETF) or a tacker quoted continuously.

Responsibilities of an Index Fund Manager

The index fund manager’s responsibilities encompass a range of critical tasks that contribute to the fund’s overall performance and alignment with its benchmark index.

These responsibilities include: replicating the index, rebalancing the portfolio, minimizing tracking errors, and managing dividends.

Replicating the Index

The index fund manager’s primary task is to ensure that the fund’s holdings mirror the index’s constituents and weightings accurately.

Rebalancing the portfolio

As market values fluctuate, the index fund manager must periodically rebalance the fund’s portfolio to maintain alignment with the index. This involves buying or selling securities to match the index’s changes.

Minimizing Tracking Error

The index fund manager aims to minimize tracking error, which measures the deviation of the fund’s performance from the index. Effective management ensures that the fund closely follows the index’s movements.

Managing dividends

Managing dividends and distributions in a manner consistent with the index is another crucial aspect of the index fund manager’s role.

Significance of Passive Investing

Index funds, which represent passive investment, have become very popular due to their cheap cost structure, benefits from diversification, and ease of use of ETFs. Index funds give investors exposure to a wide range of market segments, making them a desirable option for investors looking for reliable long-term returns without the hassles and expenses of active management. By following the index’s methodology and skillfully managing the fund’s portfolio, index fund managers play a crucial role in ensuring that these advantages are achieved.

Impact on the Financial Ecosystem

Index fund managers have a big impact on market dynamics and investor behavior, which helps to shape the financial ecosystem. Since they don’t engage in the regular buying and selling typical of active managers, their strategy of passive investment has a stabilizing influence on markets. This lessens market volatility and helps to create a more stable environment for making investments. As a result of these funds’ significant holdings in various businesses, the development of index funds has also boosted scrutiny of corporate governance and responsible investment (see the book “The Problem of 12” by John Coates).

Challenges and Opportunities

Despite the appeal of passive investing, index fund managers encounter several difficulties. It can be challenging to strike a compromise between tight index replication and performance optimization of the fund. Concerns regarding potential market distortions and ownership concentration in specific companies have also arisen because of the expansion of index funds. However, these difficulties also offer index fund managers chances to innovate, improve transparency, and respond to investor worries.

What do asset management firms do?

There are several functions of asset management firms but to brief about it, these firms are entrusted with the task of optimizing returns while managing risks, offering a diverse range of investment products and services. Functions of Asset Management Firms:

Wealth Management: Asset management firms specialize in managing and growing the wealth of their clients.
Investment Advisory: Offering investment advisory services, these firms provide insights, analysis, and recommendations on various asset classes, helping clients make informed investment decisions.
Portfolio Construction: Asset managers construct diversified portfolios tailored to meet specific financial goals and risk tolerance. They allocate assets across various classes such as stocks, bonds, real estate, and alternative investments.
Risk Management: Asset managers employ sophisticated risk management techniques to protect portfolios from market volatility and unforeseen events.
Research and Analysis: Firms conduct in-depth market research, economic analysis, and company evaluations to inform their investment decisions.

There are few notable asset management firms, to whose analysis a lot of index fund managers look up for various above-mentioned functionalities. A few examples of these Asset Management Firms are:

BlackRock: As one of the world’s largest asset managers, BlackRock manages trillions of dollars in assets. Known for its expertise in exchange-traded funds (ETFs), BlackRock offers a wide range of investment solutions for institutional and individual investors
JP Morgan Asset Management: JP Morgan Asset Management is a prominent player in the asset management industry, offering a spectrum of investment solutions, including mutual funds, institutional mandates, and alternative investments.
Fidelity Investments: Fidelity is a global asset manager providing a comprehensive suite of investment options, including mutual funds, retirement planning, and brokerage services. It is recognized for its research capabilities and investor education.
Vanguard Group: Vanguard is renowned for its low-cost index funds and a client-owned structure that aligns its interests with those of its investors. It pioneered index investing for the masses, emphasizing simplicity and cost-effectiveness.

Conclusion

An index fund manager is like a guide for passive investors, helping them navigate the financial landscape. Their job involves carefully mirroring the market, managing things effectively, and making sure the fund’s performance aligns with market indices. In a world where people want diverse investments, low costs, and steady returns, these managers look out for investors’ interests. For management students, understanding the role of an index fund manager holds valuable lessons in strategic investing and financial management. Studying the index fund manager’s role can enhance a management student’s grasp of investment strategies, financial markets, and the importance of aligning business practices with market trends.

Why should I be interested in this post?

For Master in Management students, exploring the activities of index fund managers offers practical insights into modern investment strategies relying more and more on index funds like ETFs. By understanding the role of index fund managers in passive investing, students bridge theory and practice, grasp the significance of low-cost diversification, and comprehend market trends. This knowledge enhances career prospects in finance.

Useful resources

Forbes, What Are Index Funds? How Do They Work?

Vanguard Index funds vs. actively managed funds

Oxford Law blogs Giant Asset Managers, the Big Three, and Index Investing

John Coates (2023) The problem of 12 Columbia Global Reports.

About the author

The article was written in February 2024 by Nithisha CHALLA (ESSEC Business School, Grande Ecole – Master in Management (MiM), 2021-2024).

Historical context and background

Key features

Stability

Transparency

Speed and Efficiency

Global Accessibility

Interoperability

Use cases

Remittances and Cross-Border Payments:

Stable Value Storage

Decentralized Finance (DeFi) Applications

Commerce and Payments

Financial Inclusion

Technology and underlying blockchain

ERC-20 Standard of Ethereum for USD Coin

Supply of coins

Historical data for USDC

How to get the data?

Historical data for the USD Coin market prices

R program

Data file

Python code

Evolution of the USD Coin

Summary statistics for the USD Coin

Statistical distribution of the USD Coin returns

Historical distribution

Gaussian distribution

Risk measures of the USD Coin returns

Why should I be interested in this post?

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

About cryptocurrencies

About statistics

Useful resources

Academic research about risk

Data

About the author

Private Banks : Treasuries Departments and proprietary asset allocation

Introduction

Treasury Policy

Liquidity and solvability ratios

Security portfolio allocation’s ratios

Sensitivity ratios

Risk Management and Asset Allocation

Managing liquidity and solvability risk

Interest-rate risk management

Specific risk and diversification

Conclusion

Why should I be interested in this post?

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

Useful resources

My experience as Revenue Analyst at Olympique de Marseille

About the company

My apprenticeship

My missions

Strategic recommendations and pricing

Participation in club project profitability studies

Intermediary role between sales and finance teams

Development of steering tools and reporting dashboards

As the analysis are based almost entirely on the measurement of KPIs (Key Performance Indicators), the development of management tools represented a major challenge. So, it was up to me to play an active part, working with the IT (Information Technology) and back-office teams.

Required skills and knowledge

Financial concepts related to my apprenticeship

Budget Management

Revenue Management

Business Plans and Financial modeling

Why should I be interested in this post?

Related posts on the SimTrade blog

Useful resources

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Venture Capital 101: A Quick Overview

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